3. BRAHMINICAL STUDIES IN ANCIENT TAMIḺNĀṬU ________________________________________ A popular notion has been created in Tamiḻnāṭu that the Brahmins were against Tamiḻ studies in ancient Tamiḻnāṭu and were therefore responsible for the present evils of the society. In addition, there were some self-styled international speculators who say there was no Brahminical priesthood in Tamiḻnāṭu which was the reason why Tamiḻ could develop. Such speculators say Brahmins were against local languages and so would not have allowed either Tamiḻ language or Tamiḻ script to develop. They also argue that the Vedic scholars were against writing and so could not have allowed Tamiḻ script had they been in Tamiḻ land earlier. Some Scholars think these are political gimmicks specially designed for obtaining political favours. The publicity campaign is so great for such notions it is necessary to note what were the works Brahmins of ancient Tamiḻnāṭu and should be studied. Such a study should be based on ancient literature or verifiable data. Such a study shows that the earliest Tamiḻ Society was a benevolent Vedic Society following completely the four fold Varnasrama dharma of Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya and Śūdra castes showing greatest respects to Brāhmaṇas and considering them as the leaders of the society. There were also mixed castes among them and were guided by the Dharma-śāstra in all their lifestyles. Besides there were also great learned men who were Tapasvins (called Tapatas) and another class practising the eightfold Yogic path of sage Patañjali. The Gods they worshipped were all Vedic and Purāṇic Gods and Goddesses such as Indra, Varuṇa, Viṣṇu (Tirumāl), Kumāra (Cēyōṉ), Kāma, Śiva, Balarama (Valiyōṉ), Rāma, Kṛṣṇa (Māyoṉ), Durgā (Koṟṟavai). They gave great importance to the Vedic studies and over 70% of the Tamiḻ population tha included Brāhmaṇas, Kṣatriyas, Vaiśyas and high class Vēḷḷalars and some mixed castes studied the Vedas, and other Sanskrit texts. The Tamiḻ Brāhmaṇas intensely studied Tamiḻ literature and grammar. In their poetic conventions, music and dance, the Tamiḻs followed Bharata's dance tradition. There is no evidence for such a thing as a separate Dravidian way of life but only the Brahminical way of life and what is reflected is what is found in all other parts of India and any claim to the contrary has no support either in literature or grammar of that age. The most ancient Tamiḻ source is called the Saṅgam classics and the Tamiḻ grammar Tolkāppiyam ascribed to an age between the 2 century BCE to first century CE. Tolkāppiyam is an excellent Tamiḻ grammar that classifies poetry of different kinds which were used in worldly poetic compositions and also in dramatic works. Tamiḻ poetry has been studied mainly on the classifications and rules enunciated by Tolkāppiyar though there were earlier works which had disappeared before Tolkāppiyam. Tolkāppiyam has a chapter called Purattiṇai-iyal in which it deals with several tiṇais that stand for lifestyle of the Tamiḻ. One such tiṇai is called vāhai generally meaning “Victory”. Defining what is vāhai, the Tolkāppiyam sūtra states the victory attained by special effort without forcing or suffering, obtained by the four caste Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya, and Śūdras and Sanyāsins, increasing their ideologies and capabilities through natural disciplines. This was achieved by one’s own efforts or through the efforts of others. Under this category the Tolkāppiyam classifies the following. • Pārpaṉap-pakkam i.e., Brahminical victory • Arasar-pakkam i.e., king’s victory • Victory of others with six duties 3.1. Brahmins Life The first one namely “Brahminical Victory” is mentioned as a six fold system (aruvahai paṭṭa pārpaṉap-pakkam). Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar, the commentator elaborates and says what are the six systems. It is called Pārpiyal consisting of • study of the Vedas • teaching • performing Vedic sacrifices • guide sacrifices of others • make gifts (dāna) and • receiving gifts Ṛg, Yajur and Sāma Vedas were the subjects of primary importance among the study. They stipulate (vidhi) the performance of Vedic sacrifices and so are called lakṣaṇa (grammar). Further as they are studied through grammar, they are also called lakṣya (literature). The subjects Atharva Veda, Ṣadaṅgas and Dharma-śāstra were of secondary importance. As the Atharva Veda does not teach performance of yajñas, but teaches care of living beings and about inflicting suffering on others through mantras, it was not listed with the other three Vedas. The six aṅgas (Śadaṅgas) were :- • Nirukta: research on Vedic words (Vaidika Śabdas) in the mantra, excluding worldly usages. • Vyākaraṇa: (grammar) beginning with Aindiram. • Kalpasa:- Bodhayana, Bhāradvaja, Āpasthamba, Ātreya and others • Gaṇitam: texts on mathematics by Varāha (Vārhām) and Nārāyaṇa (Nārāyaṇīyam) • Brahmam: paleography (Eḻuttu) • Chandas: grammar of poetics The Dharma-śāstra are the 18 texts including Manu Dharma-śāstra which are called the limbs of Vedic studies.
Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar further states that Agattiyam and Tolkāppiyam which were grammatical works were studied as they were of great use in worldly transactions of Tamiḻ Brahmins.
The last part of the study included Itihāsa, Purāṇas and Śāstric texts that establish the tenets of the Vedas through debate.
The Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata were literature studied with the help of Tolkāppiyam and Agathityam (evidently both the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhāratha were available in Tamiḻ during the Saṅgam age). Further there were Tamiḻ literature by Iraiyaṉār, Agathiyar, Mārkaṇḍēyar, Vālmikiyār, Gauthamaṉār and others. These authors are said to have composed their work in the first Saṅgam period. There were also poems composed in the second and the third Saṅgam periods which were also studied. We see that in the third Saṅgam period the poets named Mārkaṇḍēyar, Vālmikyār, and Pālai Gautamanār. Also, please note that Mārkaṇḍēyar, Vālmikyār, Agasthiyar and Gautamanār were gotra names of Sanskrit tradition. From the foregoing account of studies undertaken by the Tamiḻ Brāhmaṇās, it is evident that there were among them Brahmins who studied even atheistic doctrines during the Saṅgam age.
Teaching these texts depended upon students aptitude and capabilities, the fee that one could afford to pay and the nature of payment. Vedic sacrifice means performing the five offerings (Pañca-yajñas), three (Tri-yajñas) or worldly sacrifices performed by others with mantras, with havis etc., in the auspicious tradition (maṅgaḷa) that would give the Ācāryas fame. By these acts the Ācāryas would gain expertise in guiding the students to achieve the fruits of sacrifice he performs. The Vedic sacrifice is called “Vēlāṇmai”, i.e., command over Vēlvi. This Vēlāṇmai mentioned as the fruition of sacrifice is called Subrahmaṇya, achievement of Brahminhood.
It is known that at the conclusion of the Vedic sacrifices, there is a chant saying “I have become su-brahmaṇya; su-brahmaṇyoham su-brahmaṇyoham su-brahmaṇyoham". It should be noted that the fruition of agricultural operation in cultivation is also called “Vēlāṇmai”. Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar says that guiding other people to perform fruitful Vedic sacrifices is found in Bodhāyana (Bhodhāyanīyam). Many domestic rituals are said to be found in Bodhayana text even to this day (Bodhayana ukta prakāreṇa). The Purohithas officiating as Ācāryas say in modern times that Bodhāyana was the earliest authority in Tamiḻnāṭu.
The Koṭuttal (dāna) should be satisfying to the Ācārya, the accompanying priests and all those who assembled there. This is called Vēlāṇmai meaning performance of such a sacrifice. Similarly three classes accepting Dakṣina are recognized: • Best • Medium and • Average gifts Knowing the gift made, the material, and land gift, that brings appropriate satisfaction to the mind and the fullness of sacrifice he performs and the greatness or smallness of the gifts made etc. The following are considered as receipt of gifts: • the amount one gets by his study • receives by making others to give it • receives money for performing sacrifice by oneself • receives the property of a person who died without a heir • receives the property of one who lost • receives kingdom, and • receives wealth by weapons (Senāpatyam) similar to that received by Droṇācharya “There were some mixed castes, born of a Brahmin marrying a girl of lower caste. They were eligible to wear tufts of hair (śikha) and sacred thread (upavīta). They were not eligible for receiving gifts but had a right to claim some profession”. Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar cites passages from Puṟaṉāṉūru, Patiṟṟu-pattu, Tirukkuraḷ, Nāladiyār, Peruṅtiraṭṭu as examples of Brahmin’s lifestyle in ancient times. I would cite two passages alone from these collections. A poem from Pattiṟṟu-pattu (No.24) on the Cērā King says “the King followed the directions of the Brahmins who followed their dharma of six functions like study, teaching, performing sacrifices, guide others to do sacrifices, make gifts, and receive them”. This is the most appropriate and indisputable evidence of Brahminical studies and observances in the Saṅgam period. Please note that the above poem shows the kings followed the directions of the Brāhmaṇas. This would give a direct lie to the speculators who say there was no Brahminical priesthood in the Saṅgam period. Further, Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar also cites a Puṟaṉāṉūru verse (No.26) in which a Brāhmaṇa guided the ruling king in the performance of Vedic sacrifices.
Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar is a remarkable commentator who cites examples mostly from early Tamiḻ literature to illustrate Tolkāppiyam. He refers to Kaṣyapa who officiated as a priest in the sacrifice by Parasurāma.
3.2. Royal Life
After giving details about Brahmins’ study, Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar gives details about victory attained by Kings mentioned in the Tolkāppiyam sūtra: “Aivahai maṟabiṉ arasar pakkamum” Of the five functions mentioned by Tolkāppiyam, for Kings three are common to that of the Brahmins namely, study, sacrifice, and making gifts. Kings have two other functions namely protection (kāttal) and punishment (daṇṭittal). These functions are called arasiyal. All kinds of study including the Vedic studies prescribed for Brahmins are applicable to the Kṣatriya’s as well. Among the yajñas prescribed two namely Rājasūya and Aśvamedha are exclusive to the Kṣatriyas. The following gifts could be made by the kings:- • Silk garments • Sacred cattle with their horns and hoofs covered with gold plates • House with house site with betel nut trees and food crops • Cold water well, tank, etc • Virgin girls • Gift of land “These were considered gifts appropriate for the king to present to others. Affording protection with weapons, army, gifts, and other means are said to come under protection provided by the king (kāttal). Having thus protected his subjects, he can punish any persons, animals or enemies who harm the people, and also punish other kings who do not rule as per dharmic ways as prescribed in law books. All these duties of the king was called daṇḍam ceital. These actions undertaken by the kings will bestow aram (Dharma), poruḷ (Artha), and inbam (Kāma) on them”.
The following were also considered Kings’s duties:- • Confiscate properties from robbers and thieves • levy one sixth of the produce or income as tax • Collect customs duty • The Kings must specify while gifting tax free lands to Brahmins, what taxes are exempted and what is to be paid by them (this shows gift of lands may be partially or totally free of taxes). • Capture land of enemy Kings through war • When there were no relations or Brahmins the kings could take over a person’s property when he died, without an heir. • To resort to commercial or business transactions when left with insufficient money. • The king also had the right to collect fines imposed on guilty persons. These are the duties and privileges of the king indicated by the term vāhai in the Tolkāppiyam sūtra (all these are prescribed in the Dharma-śāstra under the heading Rāja-dharma). Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar gives another interesting information here.
The sūtra mentions all these as pakkam instead of arasiyal. Because a part of these rites and functions are also applicable to those who are born to the Kings when they marry girls of other castes.
Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar cites Pattiṟṟu-pattu (No.21) as an example of duties of Kings study and also perform Vedic sacrifices (col, padam, peyar, nāttam, kēḷvi). Also, a verse beginning with vicaiyant-tappiya (விசையந்தப்பிய) describes the gifts made by kings. The Kuraḷ verse Āpayaṉ kundṟum aruthoḷilōr nūl maṟappar Kāvalaṉ kāvān eṉiṉ - Kuraḷ, koduṅgol (chap-10) “ஆபயன் குன்று மறுதொழிலோர் நூன்மறப்பர் காவலன் காவா னெனின்” (குறள்-கொடுங்-10) Similarly Puṟam verse No.14, sings about the weapon of kings. It is an example of a king protecting his subjects. A king who transgressed the royal dharma was defeated in battle and his country was protected by the invading king is cited as an example from Patiṟṟu-pattu. A king killing a murderous rogue is equated to weeding out a fertile field according to Kuraḷ-ceṅkōl (verse-10). Daṇḍu also means army and Daṇḍa-nāyakam means Sēnāpati (commander). The army was therefore meant to punish wrongdoers.
3.3. Life of Vaṇikar and Vēḷḷālar “After dealing with Kings duties and privileges, the Tolkāppiyam sūtra deals with the duties of merchants (Vaṇikar and Vēḷḷālar). The duties of Vaṇikars are study of the Vedas, performing Vedic sacrifices, making presents, cultivating crops, cattle rearing, and business, altogether six in number. The duties of Vēḷḷālar are studying texts other than the Vedas, making presents, ploughing, cattle rearing, business and temple worship which are also six in number. The Vaṇikar and Vēḷḷālar are not listed separately but clubbed together because they had all the rest in common between them, with the exception of performing Vedic sacrifices which is different for them. Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar states that according to some commentators, the Vēḷḷālars were also eligible to perform Vedic sacrifices when born through matrimonial alliance with ruling families. In such cases, the duty of the temple worship prescribed for them is not required. Those who include the Vedic sacrifice for Vēḷḷālar hold that the temple worship is meant for those Vēḷḷālar who have not received any honour from the King”.
Thus it is interesting to note those who received honours from the king moved up in the social hierarchy and claimed equal rights like the Vaṇikars. It is interesting to mention that several Vēḷḷālars are mentioned from about 7th century onwards who received titles such as Mūvēnda Vēlar. These Vēḷḷālars served as high ranking officials under the King and obviously were high caste Vēḷḷālars who considered themselves as a privileged class eligible to study the Vedas and perform Vedic sacrifices.
“The word pakkam in the sūtra includes those other than the Vaṇikars and the Vēḷḷālars. Such people belong to other castes and had different professions according to their castes. But their professions are not mentioned though they are included in the six fold duty system mentioned in this sūtra. This system refers to male oriented professions.
From this commentary we understand that there were two categories of Vēḷḷālars. The former had the right to study the Vedas, and perform Vedic rites, while the other category followed temple worship.
Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar cites Puṟanāṉūṟu No. 183 as an example of Vēḷḷālar’s learning. He also cites verse No.8 of the chapter on gifts in Kuraḷ as an example of both Vaṇikar and Vēḷḷālar making presents. Similarly he cites a famous Kuraḷ on the greatness of cultivation for both Vaṇikar and Vēḷḷālar. “உழுதுண்டு வாழ்வாரே வாழ்வார்மற் றெல்லாந் தொழுதுண்டு பின்செல் பவர்.” (குறள்-உழவு-3) This sūtra goes on to list two more pakkams. One refers to Aṟivaṉ meaning realized soul who established a path followed in the past, present and to be followed in the future, subduing excessive desires, anger and intoxication, kāmam, vehuḷi, and mayakkam (kāma, krodha and moha). The followers of such realized souls “Aṟivaṉ” are called “Aṟivaṉ tēyam”.
3.4. Aṟivam and Tāpata Life Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar cites two examples from old poems. In both the instances he does not provide the source from which text he took the two verses. The first verse is as follows: Thou art the fully learned among the living Thou art unique to appear in the world of living Thou have none but yourself to protect thyself If examined thyself would rest in that path In that tradition of ancient paths in the past, present and future Who else can stand comparison to the eye lord!
The second verse cited refers to Buddha's tender grace. Seated beneath the emerald green bodhi tree That never withers Thou showered thy grace on all alike That is praised as tender than a flower That could not be severed by the sword Of the daughters of Kāmā-māraṉ Even during the torrential rain What else could be more tender than that! The first verse doesn’t indicate any one identifiable sage but a general description of a realized soul. But the second citation makes specific mention of the sage who sat under the Bodhi tree in meditation for his final realization which indicates that it is Buddha who was praised. The daughters of Māra - the Cupid are said to have attacked Buddha when he was in meditation under the Bodhi tree. As he had conquered his senses, Buddha remained unperturbed, which is praised as his tender grace. This further confirms that the sage referred to under the Bodhi tree as Aṟivaṉ was Buddha. His teachings are said to be valid eternally in the past, present and future. Many Tamiḻ poems found in Yāpparumkalam and Vīracōḻiyam refers to Buddha and his exploits in identical terms. The attack of Māra with the army of his daughters clearly establishes the Buddhist nature of the poem. As this is an illustrative poem for Tolkāppiyam sūtra, it is evident that Tolkāppiyam poem refers to Buddha in no uncertain terms. It is known that Buddhism was introduced in the Tamiḻ Country in the times of Aśoka Maurya through his embassies in the 3rd century BCE. So, Tolkāppiyam should have been composed after that period. If one allows one century for Buddha’s life to be written in Tamiḻ, Tolkāppiyam could not have been composed prior to the first century BCE. This is an earliest firm date that could be assigned to this grammatical work as internal evidence. The claim of some Scholars that it belongs to the 5th century BCE on speculative reasons is certainly off the mark. For the first time we get a firm date to this great grammatical work.
At the end of this citation, Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar says the term Aṟivaṉ could also refer to sage Agattiya who was also an Aṟivaṉ. It is known Agasthya was one of the sages of Buddhism and it is not known whether Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar refers to the Buddhist Mahāyana school.
3.5. Tāpatas Tolkāppiyam deals with the category “Tāpata-pakkam” after Arviaṉ-dēyam. “Tāpata are tapasvins who undertake penance”. Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar says the eightfold path of those who strive for Mokṣa by following the tenets of the Āgamas of that Arviaṉ, are called Tapatas. So, Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar also says that term Vaḻakku in the sūtra denote two kinds of followers of the eightfold path, a) those who observed penance by following the eightfold path and b) those who followed yoga mārga - aṣṭāṅga yoga of Patañjali. We may say that Tolkāppiyam has given a special place for yogins and Hindu tapasvins. Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar gives the following paths of tapasvins. • No desire to nourish his flesh. (In other words it means starving the body by fasting.) • No desire for water. i.e., conquer thirst • To withstand excessive heat (standing in hot sun) • To withstand excessive cold (to stand in water, river, tank) • To select the place of his death • To select a seat like lotus leaves etc. • To speak after long intervals • Not to open his mouth (which means control of the mind) • To stand in the midst of five fires (pañca agni) • To stand on hill, forest or house, • Not to speak while eating and from the day of accepting Sanyāsa or the purpose for which these penances were undertaken. From the stipulations it is clear that Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar is referring to the Hindu tapasvins. These eight disciplines are not applicable to Buddhist monks. Some of the disciplines like rejection of food, water, heat and cold, staying on hills and forest are applicable to Jaina monks. But standing in the midst of five fires is not found for Jain monks. So, when Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar says sage Agastya is also an Arivaṉ, he clearly means the Hindu Agastya.
Among those who perform Yoga, the path of Patañjali which are known as Yama (இயமம்), Niyama (நியமம்), Āsana (ஆசனம்), Vaḷi-nilai (வளிநிலை - Praṇayama), Tokai-nilai (தொகைநிலை- - Prathyāhāra), Poṟai-nilai (பொறைநிலை- - Dhāraṇa), Ninaittal (நினைதல் - Dhyāna) and Samadhi (சமாதி) are said to be the eight stages of Yoga. Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar cites a text named “Uṟai sūtra” in Tamiḻ poetic form that details these eight fold path of Patañjali which incidentally give us the Tamiḻ words for Yogic practice. Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar also says the term pakkam in the sūtra stands for those who complete these practices without break which may be considered as Vāhai.
So, the translation of the word Vāhai could be taken as “successfully carries out the understanding” instead of victory. Evidently, Vāhai is derived from the Sanskrit word “Vāh” to carry. The illustrations of these tiṇais Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar gives verses from Puṟanāṉūṟu, Tirukkuraḷ and Puṟapporuḷ-veṇpāmālai. So, we will hold the “Aṟivaṉ-tēyam” and “Tāpata-nilai” of Tolkāppiyam not as one but as two different paths of “Vāhai tiṇai?”. While all the other paths of this tiṇai are called pakkam (paksham), the path of the Aṟivaṉ alone is a called dēyam probably denoting its special category.
3.6. Life of Others Besides these six paths, Tolkāppiyam includes a group and makes a total of seven divisions under Vāhai tiṇai. By this, Tolkāppiyam includes other types of success under Vāhai. Called Poruṇar, these paths belong to all those professions which are known to them and in which they challenge and obtain success. Theese belonged to col (words or speech), music, dance, wrestling, dice and betting. An example is cited from Puṟaṉāṉūru verse No. 80 for wrestling combats. But for the rest, examples are given from Puṟaporuḷ-veṇpāmālai. A number of such turais (paths) are taken to form a group under one part of the tiṇai. So, according to Tolkāppiyam, there are seven divisions under Vahai tinai under which all singular success in professions are brought. • Pārpaṉap pakkam - Brahminical success • Arasar pakkam - King's success • Ēnōrpakkam - Vaṇikar and Vēḷḷālar success • Arivaṉ teyam - Realised souls • Tāpata pakkam - Those who do penance • Poruṇar pakkam - Combaters' success • Tokai nilai - Miscellaneous group 3.7. Tokai Nilai The other types are further elaborated. These include:- • A person born of a Brahmin through a virgin girl before her marriage. • A person born of a Brahmin through a wife of another Brahmin, illegally • A person born of a Brahmin through a Brahmin widowd. Sons born similarly among the other three castes • Their sons and grandsons who belong to different castes Each of these castes have their own profession. The victory within their profession also comes under Vāhai. Further, sons born of high caste women through a man of lower caste also form a special category Anai-nilai – அனைநிலை (mentioned by Tolkāppiyam). Great persons like Māmūlar whose path are applicable to past, present and future and who were great Yogins also belonged to Anai-nilai in Aṟivaṉ-teyam. Those who followed them as their disciples and under take penance come under “Tāpata pakkam”. Also, “Poruṇar” are those who arrange for ****-fight, ram-fight, and dog-fight etc., are brought under Anai-nilai. These belong to the six mentioned above and are not listed separately. The elaboration by Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar brings out the existence of mixed caste each of whom had their own profession approved by the law codes. Their professions are detailed in the Dharma-śāstra. They were called Anulomas and Pratilomas for whom were reserved the professions like surgery etc. The Ambaṭṭas who were called a family of Anulomas, were the Barbars who performed surgery in ancient times. Similarly, the Parasavas were the players of udukkai, and priests in temples of village gods and goddesses. They were also instrument players, musicians and dancers. The village accountants were also one such mixed caste and professions of legal drafting and maintenance of village revenue accounts were reserved for them. From Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar’s account it seems the great Tamiḻ poet of Saṅgam age Māmūlar was a great Yogin (Aṟivaṉ-tēyaṉ) belonged to the Anai-nilai category and his disciples who were Tapasivins. Tolkāppiyar then lists several turais (routes) under Vāhai tiṇai which needs a separate study.
