தமிழர் சமயம்

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5.1. Poruṭppāl -Introduction

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5.2. Porutpal a study by V.R.R. DIK****AR

Whatever be the date of the Āryan advent in Peninsula India1 one fact is clear, namely that Āryan ideas and ideals had become completely popularized in Tamiḻ India sometime during or before the epoch of the Saṅgam. A study of the nīti? texts in Sanskrit Literature bears out that the state came into existence for the progressive realization of the trivarga or the muppāl of Tamiḻ Literature2. The conception was that progress of the world (lokayātra) meant the progressive realization of the chief aims of life and these chief aims of life according to the then prevalent notions and standards were Dharma (Aṟam), Artha (Poruḷ) and Kāma (Inpam). Though the end of this realization is Mokṣa (Vīṭu) yet neither the Artha Śāstra writers of Sanskrit Literature nor the political thinkers of the ancient Tamiḻ land have thus expressed it. The idea was that the trivarga was the means towards that end, and if once the means were realized, the end would automatically follow. That the importance of trivarga was well realized in Tamiḻ India of the Saṅgam period is evident from the Tolkāppiyam and the eighteen poems of Kīḻkkaṇakku, traditionally accepted as the Saṅgam works. These eighteen poems among which the Tirukkuṟaḷ claims the first place of importance have for their object how best to realize the trivarga or the muppal which would lead to the attainment of heaven. In his commentary on the Kuṟaḷ the celebrated commentator Parimēlaḻakar refers to the indebtedness of Tiruvaḷḷuvar to the accredited authorities on dandaniti? such as vyāḻan (Bṛhaspati) and veḷḷi (Sukra). Unanimously Indian tradition records that Bṛhaspati and Sukra were the first political theorist to whom other writers including the illustrious Kauṭilya and the compiler of the Rāja Dharma section of the Mahābhārata were indebted.

Alleged indebtedness to Sanskrit - In a recent publication in Tamiḻ3, an attempt has been made to study the Kuṟaḷ from a Tamiḻ point of View. It is contended that there is no warrant for the statements of the commentator Parimēlaḻakar in regard to the indebtedness of Vaḷḷuvar to Sanskrit authors, and that there is a marked difference in the classification of the muppāl and that the concept of muppāl is the result of a slow process of evolution of the Tamiḻ genius, and that the ideas underlying the Kuṟaḷ have no correspondence with those of Sanskrit writings.4 We do not propose to examine here these views which are yet to be proved before they could be adopted as conclusive. It may be that the Tamilian genius developed itself on independent but parallel lines, and the process of such slow but sure development culminated in the genius of the Tirukkuṟaḷ's author.
End Notes
1. The generally accepted date is 700 B.c
2. The author's Hindu administrative Institutions, p.35
3. Studies in TIRUKKUṞAḶ by R.P.Sethu pillai with a foreward by K.Subramania Pillai, Madras (1923)
4. See the chapter entitled (— திருவள்ளுவரும் பரிமேலழகரரும்) and especially p.163

5.3. SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Whatever be the decision which future research will arive at in regard to the above particulars, it is a fact of the utmost importance that the Kuṟaḷ and other poems of Kīḻkkaṇakku deal with the trivarga or the muppāl. Though a cursory examination of the work has been made already, still we shall proceed to examine the same in detail to know whether any facts could be gleaned out of the fiction that has gathered round this notable poet and philosopher. The chief sources of information for the life sketch of this author are the Kapilar Ahaval and the Tiruvaḷḷuvamālai, while the Ceylon traditions as transmitted in its chronicles throw some welcome light. Besides, we have multifarious references in Tamiḻ classical literature which go a long way to fix the chronological limits of Vaḷḷuvar's age.

Legends — Of these the story contained in the Kapilar Ahaval belongs to the realm of pure mythology. A reference to this work and its value to the historian of Tamiḻ India has already been made in our study of the Saṅgam poet, Kapilar. The story runs that he was the son of a Brāhman, Bhagavān by name, by his wife, a Pulaya woman, named Ādi. The circumstances which brought about their marriage are peculiar and quite incredible. One vow taken by them on the eve of the marriage was to give away their children as presents and retain none. It is said that the marriage was over and as time went by, they had seven children four daughters and three sons. The four daughters were Uppai, Uruvai, Avvai and Vaḷḷi. These were presented to a washer man a toddy-drawer, a pāṇaṉ, and a kurava respectively, who brought them up. The three sons were Atikamān, Kapilar, and Vaḷḷuvar. While Atikamān became the adopted son of the chieftain of Vañji, Kapilar was brought up by a Brāhaman. Vaḷḷuvar was presented to one Vaḷḷuva, a resident of the modern Mylapore. Thus the parents fulfilled the vow which they took on the occasion of their marriage. Tradition further narrates that the adopted father introduced Vaḷḷuvar to the profession of weaving in which he spent his time.

Criticism of the Legend — The story is so full of inaccuracies and incredible statements that we are afraid there is no basis of truth in it excepting the mention of the two names Bhagavān and Ādi. These names are found in the first Kuṟaḷ in the order of the Ādi-Bhagavan, which means, the God of the Universe and has possibly nothing to do with his parentage. There is no reliable literary evidence, first in regard to his parents, his brothers and sisters, secondly his adoption by a Vaḷḷuva, thirdly his being brought up at Mylapore, and lastly his taking to the profession of a weaver. It seems that the ingenious author of the legend took up the compound word Ādi-Bhagavan in the first Kuṟaḷ and also the name of Vaḷḷuvan, and wove a story out of his fertile imagination. அகர முதல எழுத்தெல்லாம் ஆதி பகவன் முதற்றே உலகு — (1.1). To repeat once again, it is a very late work and the account contained therein cannot be credited with any authenticity whatsoever.

The story of the Tiruvaḷḷuvamālai — The circumstances under which the Tiruvaḷḷuamālai came to be written, and the legendthat has gathered round this, are of supreme interest. It is said that Vaḷḷuvar was not merely a weaver but also a man of letters and an erudite scholar (See Abhidānachintāmaṇi). His profound scholarship attracted to him Elelasinga, a prominent merchant, who carried on overseas trade. Elelasinga became much attracted to Vaḷḷuvar and accepted him as his teacher. At his request and for the use of his son, Vaḷḷuvar composed the great Kuṟaḷ. What was originally intended for a single individual has become the book of morals to be usefully read by the whole world. In that golden age when Vaḷḷuvar had the good fortune to live, it was the custom to get every literary work approved by the Saṅgam Assembly, then located at Madura. In accordance with this practice, the book was taken to the Saṅgam Hall. At that time, forty-nine poets were the guiding lights of the Academy. When the work was presented it met with opposition from all sides. It was remarked that it was an inferior composition much beneath the recognition of the Saṅgam. But when it was pressed that it might be placed on the Saṅgam plank and thus tested, it was agreed to. When once this was done, the Saṅgam plank made enough room to be occupied by the book, to the utter surprise of the members of the Academy. They then recognized the great value of the work and placed the author in the first rank of the poets.

This was not all. Every one of the forty-nine realized his mistake in having rejected it in the first instance, and perhaps to make up for it, every one of them hailed it as a first class work by singing a verse in praise of the work, the Kuṟaḷ and its celebrated author Iṟaiyanār (God Śiva in disguise) compared the poet's tongue to the kalpa flower. Goddess Sarasvati claimed it as the Veda itself. The King Ukirap-peru-Vaḻuti compared Vaḷḷuvar to Brahma himself. Similar panegyrics were uttered by every one of the poets constituting the Saṅgam. A collection of these songs was then made and thence it went by the name of Tiruvaḷḷuvamālai.
The story in the Ceylonese Chronicles — Another source of information is the semi-legendary story of Elelasinga as narrated in the Ceylon chronicles. These documents mention various incidents connected with the story of Alara and the term alara is only a corruption of the Tamil world Elela, the just and proper ruler that ever ruled the island of Ceylon. It is said that this Alara of Elela was a noble of the Cōḻa kingdom who invaded Ceylon with an army, had the local ruler Asela defeated and slain, got himself crowned king of the island, and reigned for forty-four years from 145 to 101 B.C (Mahavamsa, Ed. Wm. Geiger (1912) Intro, p. xxxvii) He ruled the island so justly and impartially that he was loved by all classes of people. The details of his administration of justice, such as hanging up a bell of justice to be rung by such as should be in need of justice, killing his son who had accidentally killed a calf, offering his head to be cut off as a penalty for unwittingly damaging a stupa, need not detain us at present (Mahavamsa, S. B. of Ceylon, vol, I, pp. 107-10)

Apart from the story, what is of importance to us is, if Alara or Elela can be proved to be the Elela, disciple and contemporary of Vaḷḷuvar, then there is a clue and a remarkable clue to attribute the author of the Kuṟaḷ to the second century B.C.

Criticism of the Legends — The following arguments disprove the authenticity of the legends mentioned above. First the reference to semi-Brahmanical parentage is curious and unworthy of the birth-story of a saint like Vaḷḷuvar. The Ādi-Bhagavan in the first Kuṟaḷ veṇpā refers to God and certainly not to his parents. Secondly, Atikamān is a king of much repute who is extolled by poets like Kapilar and Avvaiyār. Thirdly, the adoption of the poet by a Vaḷḷuva at Mylapore is yet to be proved. Even if this were proved there is the difficulty of interpreting the term Vaḷḷuva. Was it the name of caste, or the name of a person, or name of an office, are questions, the answer to which is shrouded in deep mystery. Vaḷḷuva may mean a member of the depressed classes, a priest, a foreteller, a nobleman, and an officer of the State. This interpretation could be sustained if the term could be identified with the Sanskrit term Vallabha (See The Tamilian Friend, vol. x, pp 7-9).

Fourthly, there is nothing to corroborate the fact that Vaḷḷuvar took to the occupation of weaving (See the twenty-first poem of Tiruvaḷḷuvamalai attributed to Nalkur Veḷviyār?). What is known is that Vaḷḷuvar was a native of Madura. But if we could credit the tradition in the Tamiḻ Nāvalar Caritam with any authenticity, there is here a stanza attributed to Vaḷḷuvar himself where he says that his profession was weaving. my கக்கிநூனெருடு மேழை
From the fact that this line and the stanza wherein occurs this line admit of other interpretations, we cannot cite this as an authority to hang anything like a theory.
Fifthly, the circumstances narrated for the composition of the Tiruvaḷḷuvamālai contain an epic interest not quite useful for purposes of historical investigation.
Sixthly, the introduction of Gods and Goddesses like Śiva, and Sarasvati presupposes a super-human atmosphere far from being believed by ordinary men. The introduction of these deities detracts the value of the document as a reliable account.
Seventhly, the same epic and puranic interest centers round the story of the Alara in the Ceylon traditions. How this story is an authentic one it is not possible to say.
Probable Historical data of the Legends — In spite of such inconsistencies and incredibilities, the legends could not be set aside as affording no value to a student of history. Bereft of the story, the Tiruvaḷḷuvamālai bears out the suggestion that Vaḷḷuvar was a member of the so-called third Saṅgam and a contemporary of some of the celebrated Saṅgam poets. We can also gather that he bore the name of Vaḷḷuvar. It may be that the saint belonged to the Vaḷḷuvakkuṭi, a community whose profession was to publish Government orders by beat of drum. It is the interesting suggestion of Professor Rangacariyar that the term Vaḷḷuvar is equal to Rajanya in Sanskrit literature, and that from the political and practical wisdom he displays in the book (See Studies in Sangam History, Ed. Review, October 1928.), Vaḷḷuvar must have held one of the high offices of the State. We are reminded of the fact that a political theorist like Kauṭalya wrote his treatise, the Artha Śāstra for his Narendra or king Chandragupta. In a similar mannerVaḷḷuvar might possibly have done this as a guide to his friend Elela or his son. It is also possible that just as Kauṭalya was appointed Chancellor of the Empire, Vaḷḷuvar might have been chosen for a high office of the State.

Though there is nothing impossible in this, yet, there is nothing definite to venture a conjecture like this. If this could be proved, it would falsify the suggestion that the term denoted the caste, and not office or occupation.

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5.4. THE AGE OF TIRUVAḶḶUVAR

While we are roaming about in a world of conjectures and imaginary pictures basing each on a single word or expression accidentally used or met with, it is preposterous to take up the examination of the date of the composition of the Kuṟaḷ. What is gratifying to note is that there is not such hopeless bewilderment in regard to this particular topic. There are three theories that now hold the field. One is that he was a late writer and his date could not have been earlier than the sixth century A.D (History of the Tamils see.p.588). The other is that he flourished sometime in the first century A.D (See G.S. Duraisamy, Tamil Literature, p.89). The third is that he must have lived in the first or second century B.C. As we shall see subsequently the cumulative weight of evidence is in favour of the last date. The following facts lead on to this assumption:
1. The Ceylon traditions assign his contemporaneity with Elela or Alara of Ceylon who flourished from 144 to 101 B.C.
2. The extant Tiruvaḷḷuvamālai, literally the garland of Tiruvaḷḷurvar is an anthology of panegyric verses sung by every one of the poets who constituted the Saṅgam during Vaḷḷuvar's time, thus pointing to the universal appreciation of his great work. Most of these poets flourished in the early centuries of the Christian era.
3. If the books dealing with Aṟam and Poruḷ or politics are indebted to Sanskrit Dharma Śāstras and Artha Śāstras as the didactic nature of the poem warrants, and as Parimēlaḻakar would have it, then, the Poruḷ portion which finds multifarious correspondence with the prescriptions of the Kauṭalya's Artha Śāstra, must be one or two centuries after the Artha Śāstra which is generally accepted as a composition of the fourth century B.C.
4. The correspondence to ideas found in the later Sanskrit literature such as Pañcatantra, Hitopadeśa, Yājñavalkya, Kāmandakiya and Bhartṛhari is due to the fact that these works simple incorporated the floating nīti verses and hence could not necessarily be a source of information to Vaḷḷuvar's work. The source may be common to all.
5. Māmūlanār, an accredited Saṅgam poet, from the fact of his referring to the flooding of the Ganges on the city of Pataliputra, and his non mentioning of the fire which consumed it later on, must have lived at the commencement of the Christian era or even before. His reference to the Kuṟaḷ is valuable as it shows beyond doubt that Vaḷḷuvar lived before him or at least was his contemporary (Tiruvaḷḷuvamālai, st. 8). See for Māmūlanār's date author's Mauryan Polity).
6. The poem has again won the appreciation and approval of Cīttalai Cāttanār, the author of the Maṇimēkalai (Thiruvaḷḷuvamālai st. 10) We know that this Cāttanār was a friend of Ilaṅko-Adigal, the illustrious author of the Cilappadikāram. Both were contemporaries of king Ceṅguṭṭuvan Cēra who is said to have flourished in the second century after Christ. That the Kural must be very much earlier than the author of the Maṇimēkalai. (பெய்யன பெய்யும்பெருமழை என்றவப் பொய்யில் புலவன் பொருளுரை தேறாய், Kādai 22.II.60-61) can be gathered from an unquestionable reference to Vaḷḷuvar. From the circumstance in which this reference occurs, we can claim a far greater antiquity for Vaḷḷuvar than is generally accorded. The lines are put into the mouth of the deity at the Bhūtasatukkam, who is reported to have referred it to a Brāhmaṇa lady Marudi, on whom the son of the king of the land Kakandan cast eyes of love desirous of sexual union. Kakandan, according to the story, is a king and contemporary of the mythical hero Parasurāma, the slayer of the Kṣatriya monarchs. It is interesting to note that the Kuṟaḷ is quoted as an authority in narrating the incident of such old times, as the days of Parasurāma.
7. It may be noted in passing that this poet was called Vaḷḷuvar poyyil pulavaṉ literally the true poet. Cāttanār's appreciation is further confirmed by the poem of his contemporary Maruttuan Damodarnar.
8. The Cilappadikāram which cannot be later than the end of the second century A.D. (முற்பகர்செய்தான் பிறன் கேடு தன்கேடு பிற்பகர் காண்குறூ உம் பெற்றி காண் — C.f. Kādai. 21.II.3-4. பிறர்க் கின்னா முற்பகற்செய்யிற் றமக்கின்னா பிற்பகற் றாமே வரும். (Kuṟaḷ.319)) quotes with approval from the extant Tirukkuṟaḷ. To quote a work as authority it must have been popular for some time and there is thus an irrefutable testimony to point out that it was a composition much older than the Cilappadikāram.
9. The literary data and the peculiar veṇpā metre which it employs in the sutra style of Sanskrit literature of that period afford further proof of the ancient character of the work.

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5.5. THE RELIGION OF VAḶḶUVAR

The genius of Tiruvaḷḷuvar consists in having produced a treatise on pure ethics which is the common property of all religions in the world. The moral code that has been presented to us contains nīti gems which would serve the world for all time to come. The maxims promulgated are of such universal application that they have evoked wide appreciation and approval as is seen from English and Latin translations of the book. The Kuṟaḷ which claims an age of 2000 years and more is still young and will be young, for it has been written for practical application for all time and in all places. The beauty of the work lies in its catering to the needs and desires of all religionists and creeds. Despite any serious and detailed study with regard to the religion of Vaḷḷuvar, it is difficult to arrive at some definite conclusion. Rather we are compelled to go back to where we started and to remain in a state of doubt as to the personal religion of the celebrated author. For, every religion including Christianity claims him.

Was he a Christian? The followers of Christianity identify (see studies in Saṅgam History, Ed., review, October 1929), without any justification whatever, Elelasinga with the apostle St. Thomas, and as Elela is said to be the patron of the poet-moralist, it may be that Vaḷḷuvar also embraced the same creed. European Tamiḻ scholars of the last century like Fr. Beschi and Pope were specially attracted by that incomparable ethical code and rendered it in European languages, Latin and English. It may be noted in passing that these scholars were mainly Christian ecclesiastics.

Was he a Jaina? It is again argues that he was a Jaina. The epithets (malarmicai yēkiṉāṉ, aindavittān aṟavaḻiyantaṇaṉ) are generally interpreted as denoting the Arhat and the philosophical ideas of the Arhats. The references to Indra and the doctrine of ahimsa are also urged in support of the same theory. How slippery is the foundation of this theory can be gauged from the following. The expression malarmicai yekiṉāṉ which means, “He who stands in the human heart,” is nothing more than the grand idea expressed in the Bhagavadgīta that the Lord God (īśvaraḥ sarva bhutānām hṛdeśe arjunas thiṣṭhati) is seated in the heart of all creatures. The aindavittāṉ is a common idea of the Hindus that he who conquered his five senses could become a yogin, and attain godhood. The term aṟavaḻiyantaṇaṉ may mean the law-giver, the law- administrator, or the law-maker. Again the cult of Indra worship is again common to all sects of Hinduism including Buddhism and Jainism. In fact Indra is one of the principal Vedic deities invoked in the sacred yajñas. The doctrine of ahimsa does not belong only to the Jaina cult. It is a fundamental doctrine of the Upaniṣads, the philosophical sections of the Vedic literature. As Parimēlaḻakar points out, we have to interpret his sayings broadly, and not narrow them down as a sectarian work. At the least it is not possible to make out a strong case for its sectarian character.

Was he a Buddhist? — That he was also a votary of Buddhism is again claimed by some scholars whose chief argument is based on the section entitled tuṟaviyal (Ch.35.st.341ff). The Kuṟaḷ 348 is specially quoted as prescribing renunciation as the cure for all ills (துறவறம் as against இல்லறம்). A corroborative clue is said to be afforded by the expression of the same ideas in the Maṇimekalai (canto vi.II.72-3). But renunciation is the ideal preached in all creeds. For example, the same Kuṟaḷ is quoted as expounding a concept of Śaiva Siddhānta (see — நெஞ்சு விடு தூது) being one of the fourteen Śaiva Siddhānta works cf.footnote.p.100 of the Kuṟaḷ ed.by., Arumuga Navalar, 11th edn.,)

Was he a Vaiṣnavite? That he embraced the Vaiṣnava creed and was a devotee of Viṣṇu is proved by the first Kuṟaḷ-veṇpā which finds a parallel in the Gīta (अक्षराणामकारोऽस्मि) where the Lord says that He was the first letter (अ) among the letters (1103 of the Kuṟaḻ ?). In another informing Kuṟaḷ-veṇpā more light is thrown on this topic. There is a distinct reference to the Vaikuṇṭha as the abode of tāmaraik-kaṇṇaṉ literally the lotus- eyed. The idea in this Kuṟaḷ-veṇpā is that righteous people, after death find their home in the abode of Viṣṇu who is said to be the lotus-eyed. Life after death in Vaikuṇṭha is clearly the Vaiṣṇava idea and this, when compared with the first verse of prayer with. which the Kuṟaḷ opens, may lend weight to the view that he was a follower of Vaiṣṇavism.

Was he a Śaiva? - There are again some Kuṟaḷ-veṇpās which go to demonstrate that the author was a Śaiva by religion. The phrase eṇguṇattān is generally quoted to show his adherence to Śaivism. It is significant to note that Śaiva saints like Appar and Sundaramūrti use the very term in their laudatory stanzas on Śiva. eṇguṇattān simple means the God with eight attributes (For a variant classification of these attributes, the reader is referred to the footnotes of the Kuṟaḷ pp 7-8, Eleventh Edition.). சாற்புண்ர்ந்து சார்புகெட ஒழுகின் மற்றழித்து சார் தரா சாந்தரு நோய். Again the Kuṟaḷ-veṇpā (359) is believed to be the Śaiva idea as it has been utilized in an accredited Śaiva Siddhānta work with approval (See Tirukkaliṟṟuppatiyar of Tirukkadavur Uyyavanda Devankyanir, ef. footnote on p. 104 of the Kuṟaḷ). To this may be added the Kuṟaḷ-veṇpā (348) which has been used in another Śaiva Siddhānta work as we have seen already.

Conclusion —
The examination of the personal religion of Vaḷḷuvar does not give us any definite lead in the matter. The fact seems to be that the author, whatever his personal religion, did not wish to give his work a sectarian character (See the learned article of Vidvan R.Raghava Ayyangar in the Sen Tamiḻ, vol I, p. 4 quoted in the introduction to his edition of the Kuṟaḷ, by Pandit M.Raghava Ayyangar). If we can hazard a conjecture, Vaḷḷuvar who was acquainted with different creeds and faiths, took up the best in every creed and thus primarily intended to be a moralist rather than a religious teacher. The Kuṟaḷ is like the Bhagavadgīta which appeals to every faith, and which admits of any interpretation looked at from any point of view. In fact it is the correct estimate of poet Kalladanar who says “Among the six religious creeds, the followers of one creed will assert that there is only one eternal thing. The followers of a second creed will speak of another thing. The followers of the third creed will speak of yet another. But it is good that the followers of all creeds accept the pronounced prescriptions of Valluvar's muppal (ஒன்றே பொருள் எனின் வேற் என்பவேற் எனின் நன்றுஎன்ப வாறு சமயத்தார் - நன்று என வெப்பா லவரு மியைபவே வள்ளுவனார் - Thiruvalluvamalai. st.9).” As has been already indicated, if Parimēlaḻakar's views could be adopted, then the author of the Kuṟaḷ must have been familiar with Sanskrit literature and especially the Dharma Śāstra and the Artha Śāstra literature. If this position can be accepted, it is reasonable to assume that Tiruvaḷḷuvar follows mainly in his Aṟattuppāl the most popular Dharma Śāstra of Manu, in his Poruṭpāl the well known Artha Śāstra of Kauṭalya and in his Kāmattuppāl the Kāmasūtra of Vatsyāyana. To these may be added portions of the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata and other allied literature. Whether Vaḷḷuva's muppāl is an independent growth or is indebted to Sanskrit literature, it is for future research to determine conclusively. As it is, there is a remarkable parallelism between the Kuṟaḷ and the Sanskrit books above referred to. We propose in the following pages to give a list of such of the Kuṛaḷ veṇpās which have a striking correspondence with those in the Sanskrit works devoted to subjects like Dharma, Artha and Kāma. This list does not, however, pretend to exhaust all the corresponding references.

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5.6. ARATUPPĀL

Coming to the first division of the book Parimēlaḻakar classifies it into two sections broadly Illaṟam or the Dharma pertaining to domestic life and Tuṟuavaṟam or the Dharma pertaining to renunciation of the world. There is another view that the whole book dealing with aram denotes the four āśramas of the Hindu view of life — brahmacarya, gṛhasta, vānaprasta and sanyāsa. The duties of the first two āśramas apparently constitute the first twenty-four chapters. While the next ten chapters (25-34) deal with the duties of the third āśrama, the following three chapters (35-37) are devoted to the sanyāsa (see. Sentamil, vol.I.p.245ff).
The Kuṟaḷ says (I followed Pope's translation of the Kuṟaḷ):
அகர முதல எழுத்தெல்லாம் ஆதி
பகவன் முதற்றே உலகு. — 1.1.
‘A’, as its first of letters, every speech maintains; The “Primal Deity” is First through all the world's domains.”The Bhagavadgīta expresses similar ideas: I am the letter ‘A’ among the alphabets, the compound among the whole class of compounds; I am the Eternal Kāla and the Creator of the universe.
अक्षराणामकारोऽस्मि द्वन्द्वः सामसिकस्य च ।
अहमेवाक्षयः कालो धाताहं विश्वतोमुखः ॥ (X. 33)
According to the Kuṟaḷ:
‘His feet, Who over the full blown flower hath past, who gain In bliss long time shall dwell above this earthly plain.’
மலர்மிசை ஏகினான் மாணடி சேர்ந்தார்
நிலமிசை நீடுவாழ் வார். — 1.3
The Gīta says; Arjuna! The Lord lives in the heart of all creatures, making all of them move about machine-like by Māya:
ईश्वरः सर्वभूतानां हृद्देशे अर्जुनः तिष्ठति ।
भ्रामयन् सर्वभूतानि यन्त्रारूढानि मायया ॥ — (XVI. 61)
The Kuṟaḷ says:
வானின் றுலகம் வழங்கி வருதலால்
தானமிழ்தம் என்றுணரற் பாற்று. (2.1)
‘The world its course maintains through life that rain unfailing gives; Thus rain is known the true ambrosial food of all that lives.’
The Bhagavadgīta furnishes a parallel: Man depends for his existence on food, and the source of food stuffs is rain.
अन्नाद्भवन्ति भूतानि पर्जन्यादन्नसंभवः
यज्ञाद्भवति पर्जनो यज्ञः कर्मसमुद्भवः — 3.14
The Kuṟaḷ says:
உரனென்னுந் தோட்டியான் ஓரைந்துங் காப்பான்
வரனென்னும் வைப்பிற்கோர் வித்து. — 3.4
‘He, who with firmness' curb the five restrains, Is see for soil of yonder happy plains.’
The Gīta furnishes a parallel: Having restrained the five senses and brought them under control and having fixed one's mind on me, one attains the divine knowledge.
तानि सर्वाणि संयम्य युक्त आसीत मत्परः
वशे हि यस्येन्द्रियाणि तस्य प्रज्ञा प्रतिष्ठिता (II. 61)
The Kuṟaḷ says:
மனத்துக்கண் மாசிலன் ஆதல்: அனைத்தறன்
ஆகுல நீர பிற. — 4.4
‘Spotless be thou in mind! This only merits virtue's name; All else, mere prompt of idle sound, no real worth can claim.
’अभयं सत्व संशुद्धिर्ज्ञान योगव्यवस्थितिः ।
दानं दमश्च यज्ञश्च स्वाध्यायः तप आर्जवम् ॥ — 16.1
The Gita has the following: Fearlessness, spotless purity, stability of knowledge and yoga, gift, peace of mind, sacrifice and learning constitute real tapas.
यस्मात् त्रयोऽप्याश्रमिणो ज्ञानेनान्नेन चान्वहम् ।
ग्टहस्थेनैव धार्यन्ते तस्माज्ज्येष्ठाश्रामो गृही ॥ (III. 78)
The Kuṟaḷ says:
இல்வாழ்வான் என்பான் இயல்புடைய மூவர்க்கும்
நல்லாற்றின் நின்ற துணை. — 5.1
‘The men of household virtue, firm in way of good, sustain The other orders three that rule professed maintain.’
The Manavadharmaśāstra rules to this effect: As the members of the three āśramas are maintained by the householder every day by jñāna and food, the āśrama of the householder is said to be the best.
यत्र नार्यस्तु पूज्यन्ते रमन्ते तत्र देवताः ।
यत्रैतास्तु न पूज्यन्ते सर्वास्तत्राफलाः क्रियाः ॥ — (III.56)
According to the Kuṟaḷ:
தென்புலத்தார் தெய்வம் விருந்தொக்கல் தானென்றாங்
கைம்புலத்தா றோம்பல் தலை. — 5.3
‘The manes, God, guests, kindred, self, in due degree, These five to cherish well is chiefest charity.’
In the Manu Smṛti, he who does not cherish the God, guest, servants, manes and self, is dead though he physically lives.
देवतातिथिभूतानां पितॄणामात्मनश्च ।
न निर्वपति पञ्चानामुच्छवसन्न स जीवति ।। (III. 72)
In the Kuṟaḷ:
மனைத்தக்க மாண்புடைய ளாகித்தற் கொண்டான்
வளத்தக்காள் வாழ்க்கைத் துணை. — 6.1
‘As doth the house beseem, she shows her wifely dignity; As doth her husband's wealth befit, she spends: helpmeet is she.’
The Dharma Śāstra has the following idea: A wife should always be joyous, skilled in domestic duties, helpful and economic in expenditure.
सदा प्रहृष्टया भोष्यं गृहकार्येषु दक्षया ।
सुसंस्कृतोपस्करया व्यये चामुक्तहस्तया ॥ — (V. 150)
In the Kuṟaḷ, it is said:
இல்லதென் இல்லவள் மாண்பானால் உள்ளதென்
இல்லவள் மாணாக் கடை. — 6.3
‘There is no lack within the house, where wife in worth excels; There is no luck within the house, where wife dishonoured dwells.’
Manu gives expression to similar sentiments: where women are honoured, there the Gods dwell: in the houses where they are not honoured, everything done becomes fruitless.
यत्र नार्यस्तु पूज्येन्ते रमन्ते तत्र देवताः ।
यत्रैतास्तु न पूजयन्ते सर्वास्तत्राफलाः क्रियाः ॥ — (III. 56 )
The Kuṟaḷ says:‘Of what avail is watch and ward ? Honour's a woman's safest guard.’
சிறைகாக்கும் காப்பெவன் செய்யும்? மகளிர்
நிறைகாக்கும் காப்பே தலை. — 6.7
अरक्षिता गृहे रुद्धाः पुरुषैरातकारिभिः ।
आत्मानमात्मना यास्तु रक्षेयुस्ताः सुरक्षिताः ॥ (IX. 12)
Similar ideas are found in the Manavadharmaśāstra those women who are bound by restraints by her own devoted kinsmen are not truly protected; those who guard themselves are well protected.
The Kuṟaḷ says:
பெற்றாற் பெறிற்பெறுவர் பெண்டிர் பெருஞ்சிறப்புப்
புத்தேளிர் வாழும் உலகு. — 6.8
‘If wife be holy true to him who gain her as his bride, Great glory gains she in the world where gods in bliss abide’
पतिं या नाभिचरति मनोवाग्देहसंयता ।
सा भर्तृलोकमावप्नोति सद्भिः साध्वीति च उच्यते ॥ (V. 165 )
Manu furnishes a parallel; she who will not abuse her right, either by mind, speech, body attains the world of pativratas and is tiled sadhvi or the good by the righteous.
The Kuṟaḷ says:
விருந்து புறத்ததாத் தானுண்டல் சாவா
மருந்தெனினும் வேண்டற்பாற் றன்று. — 9.2
‘Though food of immortality should crown the board, Feasting alone, the guests without unfed, is thing abhorred.’
Similar ideas are found in the Dharma Śāstra: A householder is to partake of the food remaining after he has fed the gods, sages, guests, manes, and household deities. He who prepares food for the sake of self, simply eats the sin.
देवान् ऋषीन् मनुष्यांश्च पितॄन् ग्रहाश्च देवताः ।
पूजयित्वा ततः पश्चात् गृहस्थः शेषभुग्भवेत् ।
अयं स केवलं भुङ्क्ते यः पचत्यात्मकारणात् ॥
— (Manu. III. 117 118)
The Kuṟaḷ says:
இன்சொலால் ஈரம் அளைஇப் படிறிலவாம்
செம்பொருள் கண்டார்வாய்ச் சொல். — 10.1
‘Pleasant words are with all- pervading love that burn; Words from his guileless mouth who can the very truth discern.’
The same ideas occur in Manu Smṛti. Speak the truth, speak pleasant things. Do not speak unpleasant and false words: speak pleasant and truthful words. This is Sanātana Dharma.
सत्यं ब्रूयात् प्रियं ब्रूयान्न ब्रूयात् सत्यमप्रियं ।
प्रियं च नानृतं ब्रूयादेष धर्म सनातनः ॥ (IV. 138)
According to the Kuṟaḷ:
அடக்கம் அமரருள் உய்க்கும், அடங்காமை
ஆர்இருள் உய்த்து விடும். — 13.1
‘Control of self does man conduct to blis th' immortals share; Indulgence leads to deepest night, and leaves him there.’
Manu says that indulgence of sense organs leads to evil without doubt: having controlled them, one attains salvation.
इन्द्रियाणां प्रसङ्गेन दोषमूर्च्छत्यसंशयं ।
सनियम्य तु तान्येव ततः सिद्धिं नियच्छति ॥ — (II. 93 )
Again the Kuṟaḷ rules:‘Though he forget, the Brahman may regain his Vedic lore; Failing in 'decorum due, birthright's gone for evermore.’
மறப்பினும் ஒத்துக் கொளலாகும் பார்ப்பான்
பிறப்பொழுக்கங் குன்றக் கெடும். — 14.4
In the laws of Manu, it is said that a Brāhmaṇa who is devoid of decorum will not attain the fruits of the study of the Vedas. On the other hand, one who observes decorum will reap the full reward.
आचाराद्विच्युतोविप्रो न वेदफलमश्रुते ।
आचारेण तु संयुक्तः संपूर्णफलभाग्भवेत् ॥ (I. 109)
The Kuṟaḷ prescribes:
எனைத்துணைய ராயினும் என்னாம் தினைத்துணையும்
தேரான் பிறனில் புகல். — 15.4
‘How great soe'er they be, what gain have they of life, Who not a whit reflecting, seek a neighbour's wife?’
Manu's remarks are appropriate:
न हि हीदृशमानृशंस्यं लोके विद्यते ।
यादृशं पुरुषस्येह परदारोपसेवनम् ।। (IV. 134)
There is no other thing which results in diminution of life than the fact of a person's criminal intimacy with his neighbour's wife.
In the Kuṟaḷ:
ஒருமையுள் ஆமைபோல் ஐந்தடக்கல் ஆற்றின்
எழுமையும் ஏமாப் புடைத்து. — 13.6
‘Like tortoise, who the five restrains In one, through seven worlds bliss obtains.’
यदा संहरते चायं कूर्मोङ्गानीव सर्वशः ।
इन्द्रियाणीन्द्रियार्थेभ्यस्तस्य् प्रज्ञा प्रतिष्ठिता ॥ — 2.58
The Bhagavadgīta says that as a tortoise will restrain all limbs into itself, he who would restrain his senses will attain wisdom.
The Kuṟaḷ rules:
அற்றார் அழிபசி தீர்த்தல் அஃதொருவன்
பெற்றான் பொருள்வைப் புழி. — 23.6
‘Let men relive the wasting hunger men endure; For treasure gained thus finds he treasure-house secured.’
The Manavadharmaśāstra rules to this effect:
नवैस्वयं तदश्नीयादतिथीं यन्न भोजयेत् ।
धन्यं यशस्यमायुष्यं स्वर्ग्यं वातिथिपूजनम् ॥ — (III. 106)
One must not eat oneself, without feeding first the guests; feeding of the guest leads to wealth, health, fame and heaven.
The Kuṟaḷ asks:
தினற்பொருட்டால் கொல்லா துலகெனின் யாரும்விலைப்
பொருட்டால் ஊன்தரு வார்இல். — 26.6
We eat the slain' you say, ‘by us no living creatures die’; Who'd kill and sell, I pray, if none came there the flesh to buy?
Manu says: He who approves of the killing of an animal, who preserves the slaughtered body, who kills it, who buys it and sells it, who cooks it, and who serves it, and who makes a meal of it are to be termed ‘killers’.
अनुमता विशासिता निहन्ता क्रयविक्रयी ।
संस्कर्ता चोपहर्ता च स्वादकश्चेति ॥ — (V. 51)
The Kuṟaḷ says:
உண்ணாமை வேண்டும் புலாஅல் பிறிதொன்றன்
புண்ண துணர்வார்ப் பெறின். — 26.7
‘With other beings' ulcerous wounds their hunger may appease; If this they felt, desire to eat must surely cease.’
समुत्पत्तिं च मांसस्य वधबन्धौ च देहिनाम ।
प्रसमीक्ष्य निवर्तेत सर्वमांसस्य भक्षणात् ॥ (V. 49)
According to Manu, having learnt the origin of flesh (meat) and the killing of creatures, one will refrain from taking any kind of meat.
The Kuṟaḷ prescribes:
அவிசொரிந் தாயிரம் வேட்டலின் ஒன்றன்
உயிர்செகுத் துண்ணாமை நன்று. — 26.9
‘Than thousand rich oblations, with libations rare, Better the flesh of slaughtered beings not to share.’Manu's ruling is similar: he who would perform a hundred Aśvamedha sacrifices year after year and he who would refrain from flesh-eating are equal so far the attainment of fruits is concerned.
वर्षेवर्षेऽश्वमेधेन यो यजेत शतंसमाः ।
मांसानि च न खादेत् यस्तयोः पुण्यफलं समम् ॥ — (V. 53)
The Kuṟaḷ says:
தன்னுயிர் தானறப் பெற்றானை ஏனைய
மன்னுயி ரெல்லாந் தொழும். — 27.8
‘Who gains himself in utter self-control. Him worships every other living soul.’
In Manu, one should endeavor day and night to conquer the senses: and one who conquers his senses is able to have all people under his control.
इन्द्रियाणां जये योगं समातिष्ठेद्दिवानिशं ।
जितेन्द्रियो हि शक्नोति वशे स्थापयितुं प्रजाः ॥ (VII.44)
In the Kuṟaḷ:
எல்லா விளக்கும் விளக்கல்ல சான்றோர்க்குப்
பொய்யா விளக்கே விளக்கு. — 29.9
‘Every lamp is not a lamp in wise men's sight: That's the lamp with truth's pure radiance bright.’
In the Gīta, The Yogi controlled, self engaged, in meditation, is likened to a lamp that is still in a windless place.
यथा दीपो निवातस्थो नेङ्गते सोपमा स्मृता ।
योगिनो यतचित्तस्य युञ्जतो योगमात्मनः ॥ — 6.19
According to Vaḷḷuvar:
உயிர்உடம்பின் நீக்கியார் என்ப செயிர்உடம்பின்
செல்லாத்தி வாழ்க்கை யவர். — 33.10
Who had a loathed life in bodies sorely pained, Are men, the wise declare, by guilt of slaughter stained.’
In the laws of Manu it is said that he who causes the killing of prohibited animals for his own happiness.
योऽहिंसकानि भूतानि हिनस्त्यात्मसुखेच्छया ।
स जीवंच्च मृतश्चैव न कश्चित् सुखमेधते ॥ (V. 45)
Is considered to be dead, though living, for he never attains happiness.
Vaḷḷuvar says:
உறங்குவது போலும் சாக்கா டுறங்கி
விழிப்பது போலும் பிறப்பு. — 34.9
‘Death is sinking into slumbers deep; Birth again is waking out of sleep.’
The Bhagavadgīta furnished a parallel: There is certain death to one who is born, and there is certain birth to one dead.
जातस्य हि ध्रुवो मृत्युर्ध्रुवं जन्म मृतस्य च ।
तस्मादपरिहार्येऽर्थे न त्वं शोचितुमर्हसि ॥ — 2.27

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5.7. PORUTPĀL
Parimēlaḻakar makes a three fold clasification of the second section of the Kuṟaḷ. He divides it into kingship, elements of sovereignty and common duties. This section consists of seventy chapters on the whole; and of these, twenty-five chapters deal with kingship and king. The next ten chapters deal with kingship and king. The next ten chapters ending with the title avaiañcāmai deal with the ministry. Chapters 74-78 are devoted to Poṟuḷ according to one view, while the succeeding five chapters are concerned with friendship. Twelve chapters from the eighty-fourth chapter come according to the same authority, under the category of tuṉpaviyal.
The Kuṟaḷ says:
படைகுடி கூழமைச்சு நட்பரண் ஆறும்
உடையான் அரசருள் ஏறு. — 39.1
‘An army, people, wealth, a minister, friends, fort: Six things — Who owns them all, a lion lives amid the kings.’
The Artha Śāstra prescribes: the king, minister, territory, fort, treasury, army, friends constitute the elements of a State. He who possesses these and who follows the righteous policy is able to conquer the whole earth and is never defeated.
स्वाम्यात्यजनपददुर्गकोशदण्डमित्राणि प्रकृतयः ।
आत्मवांल्पदेशोऽपि युक्तः प्रकृतिसंपदा ॥
नयज्ञः पृथिवीं कृत्स्नां जयत्येव न हीयते ॥ (VI. I.18)
According to the Kuṟaḷ:
இயற்றலும் ஈட்டலும் காத்தலும் காத்த
வகுத்தலும் வல்ல தரசு. (39.5)
‘A king is he who treasure gains, stores up, defends, And duly for his kingdom's weal expends.’
The kamandaka nītisāra furnishes a parallel:
न्यायेनार्जनमर्थस्य रक्षणं वर्धने तथा ।
सत्पात्रप्रतिपतिश्च राजवृत्तं चतुर्विधं ॥ (I. 20)
The four fold functions of the king are to acquire wealth by equitable means, to preserve it, to augment it and then expend it on the deserving.
What the Kuṟaḷ prescribed:
கொடைஅளி செங்கோல் குடியோம்பல் நான்கும்உடையானாம் வேந்தர்க் கொளி. — 39.10
‘Gifts, grace, right sceptre, care of people's weal: These four a light of dreaded kings reveal’
Is corroborated by the Kamandaki. Pleasant speech, grace, gifts, protection of the poor
वाक् सूनुता दया दानं दीनोपगत रक्षणम् ।
इति सङ्गः सतां साधु हितं सत्पुरुषव्रतम् ।। (III. 2)
And the distressed, and association with men of character are recognized by the world as the right thing.
The prescription of the Kuṟaḷ is:
கற்க கசடறக் கற்பவை கற்றபின்
நிற்க அதற்குத் தக. — 40.1
‘So learn that you may full and faultless learning gain, Then in obedience meet to lessons learnt remain.’
According to the Artha Śāstra, sciences should be studied under qualified teachers and their precepts duly followed. Discipline is the fruit of learning.
विद्यानां तु यथास्वामचार्य प्रामाण्याद्विनयो नियमश्च (1.5)
In the Kuṟaḷ, it is said:
(411)செல்வத்துள் செல்வம் செவிச்செல்வம் அச்செல்வம்
செல்வத்து ளெல்லாம் தலை. — 42.1
‘Wealth of wealth is wealth acquired by ear attent: Wealth mid all wealth supremely excellent’
The Kauṭilya says: Hearing opens the door to knowledge, knowledge to right action, and right action to knowledge of one's self. This is what constitutes vidya.
श्रुतादि प्रज्ञोपजायते प्रज्ञया योगो योगादात्मवतेति विद्यासामर्थ्यं (I.V)
The Kuṟaḷ says:
அறிவுடையார் ஆவ தறிவார் அறிவிலார்
அஃதறி கல்லா தவர். (43.7)
‘The wise discern, the foolish fail to see, And minds prepare for things about to be.’
In the Artha Śāstra, he who possesses the eye of knowledge and science, is able to discern the true thing with a little effort.
प्रज्ञाशास्त्र चक्षुर्हि राजा अल्पेनापि प्रयत्नेन मन्त्रमाधातुं शक्तः (ix.ch.1)
According to the Kuṟaḷ:
அறனறிந்து மூத்த அறிவுடையார் கேண்மை
திறனறிந்து தேர்ந்து கொளல். (45.1)
‘As friends the men who virtue know, and riper wisdom share. Their worth weighed well, the king should choose with care.’
The prescription of Bharadvāja is that companions whose honesty and skill have been put to satisfactory tests shall be appointed ministers.
सहायाध्यायिनो अमात्यान् कुर्वीत दृष्टशौचसामर्थ्यत्वात् इति भारद्वाजः । (Arthaśāstra.i.8)
The Kuṟaḷ asks:
இடிக்கும் துணையாரை ஆள்வாரை யாரே
கெடுக்கும் தகைமை யவர். — 45.7
What power can work his fall, who faithful ministers. Employees, that thunder out reproaches when he errs.

5.8. STUDIES IN TAML LITERATURE

The Artha Śāstra prescribes that a king should select such ministers whose loyalty has been tried and who would protect him from risks involving danger to life.
य एनमापत्सु प्राणबाधयुक्तास्वनुग्रहिष्णुः
तानमात्यान् कुर्वीत। दृष्टानुरागत्वादिति । (i.8)
The Kuṟaḷ prescribes: (462/70)
தெரிந்த இனத்தொடு தேர்ந்தெண்ணிச் செய்வார்க்
கரும்பொருள் யாதொன்றும் இல். — 47.2
எள்ளாத எண்ணிச் செயல்வேண்டும்; தம்மொடு
கொள்ளாத கொள்ளா துலகு. — 47.10
‘With chosen friends deliberate; next use thy private thought; Then act. By those who thus proceed all works with ease are wrought.’
‘Plan and perform no work that others may despise; What must be seems a king the world will not approve as wise.’
The Artha Śāstra (I.15) says: All undertakings are to be preceded by mantra or counsel. Let the king review the works with the ministers present. That which gives fruition and is advo cated by the best men must be done.
मन्त्रपूर्वाः समारम्भाः ....... आसनैः सह कार्याणि पश्येत् । ....... तत्र यद्भूयिष्ठा कार्यसिद्धिकरं वा ब्रूयुः तत्कुर्यात् ।
It is the opinion of Vaḷḷuvar:
வினைவலியும் தன்வலியும் மாற்றான் வலியும்
துணைவலியும் தூக்கிச் செயல். — 48.1
‘The force the strife demands, the force he owns, the force of foes, The force of friends: these should he weigh ere to the war he goes.’
On this Kauṭilya (IX.ch.1) observes: The conquering monarch shall acquaint himself with the comparative strength and weakness, of himself and of his enemy in regard to power, place, time, season for march, season for recruiting the army, consequential advantages and difficulties arising from anger, diminution and loss, and decide on expedition if he would feel assured of superiority in his force.
विजिगीषुरात्मनः परस्य च बलाबलंशक्तिदेशकालयात्राकालबलसमुत्थानकालपश्चात्कोपक्षयव्ययलाभापदां ज्ञात्वा विशिष्टबलो यायात् ।
The title of the Chapter XLVIII in the Kuṟaḷ, viz வலியறிதல் equates with शक्तिज्ञानम् of the Kauṭilya, Bk.IX. ch. I
The Kuṟaḷ asks: (472/6-7)
ஒல்வ தறிவ தறிந்ததன் கண்தங்கிச்
செல்வார்க்குச் சொல்லாத தில். — 48.2
நுனிக்கொம்பர் ஏறினார் அஃதிறந் தூக்கின்
உயிர்க்கிறுதி ஆகி விடும். — 48.6
ஆற்றின் அளவறிந் தீக; அது பொருள்
போற்றி வழங்கும் நெறி. — 48.7
‘Who know what can be wrought, with knowledge of the means, on this. Their mind firm set, go forth, nought goes with them amiś’ (472)
‘Who daring climbs, and would himself upraise Beyond the branch's tip, with life the forfeit pays.’ (476)
‘With knowledge of the measure due, as virtue bids you, give! That is the way to guard your wealth, and seemly live.’ (477)
The Kauṭilya (IX.ch.i) says: The power of mantra is better. The king who possesses the eye of Śāstraic knowledge can press his knowledge into service even with little effort. He can overreach the enemy with enthusiasm and power by means of conciliation, and application of strategic means. In this way success is due to enthusiasm, power and force of mantra in the ascending order.
मन्त्रशक्तिः श्रेयसी ।। प्रज्ञाशास्त्रचक्षुर्हि राजाल्पेनापि प्रयत्नेन मन्त्रमाधातुं शक्तः परानुत्साहप्रभाववतश्च सामादिभिर्योगोपनिषद्भ्यां चातिसंधातुम् ।। एवमुत्साहप्रभावमन्त्रशक्तीनामुत्तरोत्तराधिको अतिसंधौ ॥
The title of the Chapter XLIX of the Kuṟaḷ (காலமறிதல்) corresponds to the (कालज्ञानम्) of the Kauṭilya, Bk. IX. Ch. I.
According to the author of the Kuṟaḷ, (481-482)
பகல்வெல்லும் கூகையைக் காக்கை இகல்வெல்லும்
வேந்தர்க்கு வேண்டும் பொழுது. — 49.1
பருவத்தொ டொட்ட ஒழுகல் திருவினைத்
தீராமை ஆர்க்கும் கயிறு. — 49.2
‘A crow will conquer owl in broad daylight: The king that foes would crush, needs fitting time to fight.’
‘The bond binds fortune fast is ordered effort made Strictly observant still of favouring season's aid.’
Says the Kauṭilya That season is best which is suited to the manoeuvre of one's own army and unsuited to one's enemy. The reverse is the worst. The ordinary season is the middling one.
यत्रात्मनः सैन्यव्यायामानामृतुः अनृतुः परस्य, स उत्तमः कालः, विपरीतो अधमः, साधारणो मध्यमः ॥ कालः श्रेयान् इत्येके ॥ दिवा काकः कौशिकं हन्ति, रात्रौ कौशिकः काकम् इति ॥ (IX.1)
‘Time alone is better' say some. For on this account the crow kills the owl in the day and the owl the crow in the night.’
The title of the Chapter (L) in the Kuṟaḷ iṭaṉaṟital is a translation of the term of the Kauṭilya Artha Śāstra Bk. IX, ch.I.
The Kuṟaḷ prescribes:
ஆற்றாரும் ஆற்றி அடுப இடன்அறிந்து
போற்றார்கள் போற்றிச் செயின். — 50.3
எண்ணியார் எண்ணம் இழப்பர் இடன் அறிந்து
துன்னியார் துன்னிச் செயின். — 50.4
‘Even weak ones mightily prevail, if place of strong defence They find, protect themselves, and work their foes offence.’
‘The foes who thought to triumph, find their thoughts were vain, If hosts advance, seize vantage ground, and thence the fight maintain.’
According to the Artha Śāstra one should endeavor the means to increase the strength of one's own force. That desa is the best which is the ground for the manoeuvre of one's own army but disadvantageous to the enemy. Otherwise it is the worst. That which is common is neither best nor worst.
यथास्वबलवृद्धिकरं कर्मप्रयुञ्जीत ॥ यत्रात्मनः सैन्यव्यायामानामृतुः अनृतुः परस्य, स उत्तमः कालः, विपरीतो अधमः साधारणो मध्यमः॥ (IX. 1)According to the Kuṟaḷ
நெடும்புனலுள் வெல்லும் முதலை; அடும்புனலின்
நீங்கின் அதனைப் பிற. — 50.5
அஞ்சாமை அல்லால் துணைவேண்டா எஞ்சாமை
எண்ணி இடத்தால் செயின். — 50.7
கால்ஆழ் களறின் நரிஅடும் கண் அஞ்சா
வேல்ஆள் முகத்த களிறு. — 50.10
‘The crocodile prevails in its own flow of water wide, If this it leaves, 'tis slain by any thing beside.’
‘Save their own fearless might they need no other aid, If in right place they fight, all due provision made.’
‘The jackal slays, in miry paths of foot-betraying fen, The elephant of fearless eye and tusks transfixing armed men.’
In the Artha Śāstra it is said:The ground is better, some say. On this account the dog on the ground can overreach even a crocodile, and the crocodile in the low ground the dog.
Thus we come across similar ideas both in the Artha Śāstra and the Kuṟaḷ. While the Artha Śāstra has dealt in one chapter all the three means of śakti, deśa and kāla, the Kuṟaḷ devotes three separate chapters of ten Kuṟaḷ-veṇpās each.
देशः श्रेयान् इत्येके ॥ स्थलगतो हि श्वा नक्रं विकर्षति, निम्नगतो नक्रः श्वानम् इति ॥ ( IX. 1)
The Chapters LI and LII of the Kuṟaḷ entitled ‘தெரிந்து தெளிதல்’ and ‘தெரிந்து விளையாடல்’ are identical with a chapter in the Artha Śāstra देशज्ञान. ( Bk.I.10)
According to the Kuṟaḷ
அறம்பொருள் இன்பம் உயிரச்சம் நான்கின்
திறம்தெரிந்து தேறப் படும். — 51.1
‘How treats he virtue, wealth and pleasure? How, when life's at stake.’
‘Comports himself ? This four fold test of man will full assurance make.’
Says Kauṭilya (I.ch.10): The ministers shall be tested by the upādhas which are in the nature of temptations. These are of four kinds, the temptation of virtue, wealth, lust and fear.
अमात्यानुपधाभिः शौचयेत् । धर्मोपधा अर्थोपधा कामोपधा भयोपधा ।
The Kuṟaḷ has the following:
தேரான் தெளிவும் தெளிந்தான்கண் ஐயுறவும்
தீரா இடும்பை தரும். — 51.10
‘Trust where you have not tried, doubt of a friend to feel, Once trusted, wounds inflict that nought can heal’
The Artha Śāstra says: (i.ch. 10) The ācāryās have prescribed that the king should appoint government servants in their respective posts after the four fold test and according to the satisfaction, afforded by such test.
त्रिवर्ग भय संशुद्धानमात्यान् स्वेषु कर्मसु । अधिकुर्याध्यथाशौचमित्याचार्या व्यवस्थिताः ॥ (I. Ch. 10)

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What the Kuṟaḷ rules:
வினைக்குரிமை நாடிய பின்றை அவனைஅதற்குரிய னாகச் செயல். — 52.8
நாடோறும் நாடுக மன்னன் வினைசெய்வான்கோடாமை கோடா துலகு. — 52.10
‘As each man's special aptitude is known, Bid each man make that special work his own.’‘Let king search out his servants deeds each day; When these do right, the world goes rightly on its way’
Is corroborated by the Kauṭilya
तत्र धर्म उपधा शुद्धान् धर्म स्थीय कण्टक शोधनेषु कर्मसु स्थापयेत्,
अर्थ उपधा शुद्धान् समाहर्तृ सन्निधातृ निचय कर्मसु,
काम उपधाशुद्धान् बाह्य आभ्यन्तर विहार रक्षासु,
भय उपधा शुद्धान् आसन्न कार्येषु राज्ञः ॥
सर्व उपधा शुद्धान् मन्त्रिणः कुर्यात् ॥
तस्माक्षमधिष्ठानं कृत्वा कार्ये चतुर्विधे । (I. X)
Those who have come out successful from the dharmopadha are to be appointed as judges and commissioners, from the arthopadha to offices of treasurer and collector-general, from the kamopadha to guarding frontiers, harem and sporting grounds, and from the bhayopadha in the king's household.
Those who have gone through the four ordeals are to be chosen as ministers. Having thus chosen his servants by the four-fold tests, the king shall endeavor through his spies to get at their loyalty or otherwise.
The ruling of the Kuṟaḷ is as follows:
இனை இதனால் இவன்முடிக்கும் என்றாய்ந்ததனை அவன்கண் விடல். — 52.7
‘This man, this work shalt thus work out’ let thoughtful king command; Then leave the matter wholly in his servant's hand.
Kāmandaka says (V.75)
यो यद्वस्तु विजानाति तं तत्र विनियोजयेत।
अशेषविषयप्राप्ताविन्द्रियार्थेषु वेन्द्रियं ॥
He whose capacity is too well known for a particular job is appointed to it, just like the different senses which are employed to perceive particular objects.
To the Kuṟaḷ:
ஓர்ந்துகண் ணோடா திறைபுரிந் தியார்மட்டும்
தேர்ந்துசெய் வஃதே முறை. — 55.1
‘Search out, to no one favour show, with heart that justice loves, Consult, then act; this is the rule that right approves.’
The Rāmāyaṇa (VII.79.9) furnishes a parallel: If the punishment accorded to the offenders is meted out according to the laws of the land, it leads the monarch to heaven.
अपराधिषु यो दण्डः पात्यते मानवेषु वै ।
स दण्डो विधिवन्मुक्तः स्वर्गे नयति पार्थिवम् ॥ (Cf. āpastamba.ii.5,ii.3)
सुविचितं विचित्या दैवप्रभेभ्यो राजा दण्डाय प्रतिपद्यते ।
The Kuṟaḷ observes:
அந்தணர் நூற்கும் அறத்திற்கும் ஆதியாய்
நின்றது மன்னவன் கோல் — 55.3
‘Learning and virtue of the sages spring, From all controlling scepter of the king.’
According to the Artha Śāstra:
The state which is disciplined by the established laws of the Āryas, which is rooted in the organization of castes and orders, and which is protected by the three Vedas, progresses and never deteriorates.
व्यवस्थितार्यमर्यादाः कृतवर्णाश्रमस्थितिः ।
त्रय्या हि रक्षितो लोकः प्रसीदति न सीदति ॥ (I.3)
To the Kuṟaḷ
இயல்புளிக் கோலோச்சு மன்னவன் நாட்ட
பெயலும் விளையுளும் தொக்கு. — 55.5
‘Where king, who righteous law regards, the scepter wields, There fall the showers, there rich abundance crowns the fields.’
A parallel is furnished in the RāmāyaṇaThe fields are rich with crops, the rains shower in proper seasons, and the soldiers are free from disease during Satrughṇa's rule.
क्षेत्राणि सस्ययुक्तानि काले वर्षति वासवःनीरोगवीरपुरुषा शत्रुघ्नभुजपालिता ॥ (VII. 70.10)
Similar to the Kuṟaḷ
கூழுங் குடியும் ஒருங்கிழக்கும் கோல்கோடிச்
சூழாது செய்யும் அரசு. — 56.4
‘Whose rod from right deflects, who counsel doth refuse, At once his wealth land people utterly shall lose’
The lawgiver rules:That king who allows the kingdom to deteriorate owing to sheer neglect and lethargy will soon fall from his position and life with all his relatives.
मोहाद्राजस्वराष्ट्रं यः कर्षयत्यनवेक्षया ।
सः अचिरात् भ्रश्यते राज्याजीविताश्च सबान्धवः ॥ ( Manu vii. 111)
To the Kuṟaḷ:‘Where guardian guardeth not, udder of kine grows dry, And Brāhman's sacred lore will all forgotten lie,’ the Mahābhārata (Śānti.112.28) furnishes a parallel:
मश्चे त्रयी दण्डनीतौ हतायां सर्वे धर्माः प्रत्ययेयुर्विरुद्धाः ।
सर्वे धर्माश्चाश्रमाणां हताः स्युः क्षात्रे नष्टे राजधर्मे पुराणे ॥
When daṇḍanīti is given a death-blow and when the ancient rājadharma of the kṣatriyas becomes lost, the sacred lore gets extinct, as also all the dharmas including those dharmas pertaining to the āśramas.
To the ruling of the Kuṟaḷ
கடிதோச்சி மெல்ல எறிக நெடிதாக்கம்
நீங்காமை வேண்டு பவர். — 57.2
‘For length of days with still increasing joys on heaven who call, Should raise the rod with bow severe, but let it gently fall.’
Manu furnishes a parallel:
तितीक्षणाश्चैव मृदुश्च स्यात् कार्ये वीक्ष्य महीपतिः ।
तीक्ष्णाश्चैवमृदुश्चैव राजा भवति संमतः ॥ (VII. 140)
‘The king should be harsh and mild according to the nature of the work. He endears himself to the people, being harsh and soft.’
The Kuṟaḷ says:
செருவந்த போழ்தில் சிறைசெய்யா வேந்தன்
வெருவந்து வெய்து கெடும். — 57.9
‘Who builds no fort whence he may foe defy, In time of war shall fear and swiftly die.’
Manu gives expression to similar sentiments:
यथा दुर्गाश्रितानेताम्रोपाहिंसान्ति शत्रवः ।
तथारयो न हिंसन्ति नृपं दुर्गसमाश्रितं ॥ (VII. 73)
The enemies do not wrong those resident in fortresses, as they do not attack the king who shelters under a fort.
The Chapter LIX in the Kuṟaḷ entitled ‘oṟṟāṭal’ can be equated with the title (Sanskrit word) the eleventh chapter of Book I of the Artha Śāstra. While the latter prescribes sending caras to the eighteen departments of the State as well as the enemy, the friend and the neutral, the Kuṟaḷ chapter is apparently concerned with the enemy, the neutral and the ally.
In the Kuṟaḷ it is said:
துறந்தார் படிவத்தர் ஆகி இறந்தாராய்ந்
தென்செயினும் சோர்வில தொற்று. — 59.6
மறைந்தவை கேட்கவற் றாகி அறிந்தவை
ஐயப்பா டில்லதே ஒற்று. — 59.7
ஒற்றொற்றித் தந்த பொருளையும் மற்றும் ஓர்
ஒற்றினால் ஒற்றிக் கொளல். — 59.8
ஒற்றொற் றுணராமை ஆள்க; உன்மூவர்
சொல்தொக்க தேறப் படும். — 59.9
‘As monk or devotee, through every hindrance making way, A spy, whate'er men do, mut watchful mind display.’
‘A spy must search each hidden matter out, And full report must render, free from doubt.’
‘Spying by spies, the things they tell, To test by other spies is well.’
‘One spy must not another see: contrive it so; And things by three confirmed as truth you know.’
The Artha Śāstra has the following (I.ch.11 and 12):
कापटिक ताप्सव्यञ्जनान् ........... भक्तितः सामर्थ्ययोगाश्चापसर्पयेत् । तेषां बाह्यं चारं ..... तीक्ष्णा विद्युः तं सत्रिणः संस्थास्वर्पयेयुः संस्थानमन्तेवासिनः संशालिभिश्चारसंचारं कुर्युः (I. ch. 11-12 )
The King shall send fraudulent and ascetic spies who have been tried for their loyalty and skill.
The class of officers who went by the name of tiksanas ascertained their outward conduct. The satri spies carried this information to the district quarters. The residential officers therein made it known to the headquarters through signs and cipher writings. This is to be done without the knowledge of the respective samsthas. If the information is corroborated by three independent sources, it is taken to be confirmed.
In the Kuṟaḷ:
ஒற்றுமுரை சான்ற நூலும் இவையிரண்டும்
தெற்றென்க மன்னவன் கண். — 59.1
‘These two: the code renowned, and spies, In these let king confide as eyes.’The Kamandaki says:A king should get at the movements of the adversary through the medium of his cautious and secret spies. That king one of whose eyes is cara or the spy is awake even in sleep.
सूक्ष्मसूत्रप्रचारेण पश्येद्वैरिविचेष्टितं ।
स्वपन्नापि हि जागर्ति चारजक्षुर्महीपतिः ॥ (XIII.29)
According to the Kuṟaḷ:
மடியை மடியா ஒழுகல் குடியைக்
குடியாக வேண்டு பவர். — 61.2
குடிமடிந்து குற்றம் பெருகும் மடிமடிந்து
மாண்ட உஞற்றி லவர்க்கு. — 61.4
‘Let indolence, the death of effort, die, if you'd uphold your household's dignity.’
‘His family decays, and faults unheeded thrive, Who sunk in sloth, for noble objects doth not strive.’
The Gita gives similar ideas: (XIV.8)
तमस्त्वज्ञानजं विद्धि मोहनं सर्वदेहिनाम् ।
प्रमादालस्यनिद्राभिस्तन्निबध्नाति भारत ॥
Know, oh Bharata, inertia born of ignorance and the deluder of all beings, is bound by sloth, indolence and sleep.
The Kuṟaḷ says:
இன்பம் விழையான் இடும்பை இயல்பென்பான்துன்பம் உறுதல் இலன். — 63.8
இன்னாமை இன்பம் எனக்கொளின் ஆகும்தன்ஒன்னார் விழையும் சிறப்பு. — 63.10
‘He seeks not joy, to sorrow man is born, he knows; Such man will walk unharmed by touch of human woes.’
‘Who pain as pleasure takes, he shall acquire. The bliss to which his foes in vain aspire.’
The Gīta says similarly:
अशोच्यानन्वशोचस्त्वं प्रज्ञावादांश्च भाषसे ।
गतासूनगतासूंश्च नानुशोचन्ति पण्डिताः ॥ 2.11
आत्मौपम्येन सर्वत्र समं पश्यति योऽर्जुन ।
सुखं वा यदिवा दुःखं सः योगी परमो मतः ॥ 6.32
‘You grieve for things not fit to be grieved for an yet indulge in wise sayings. The wise never grieve either for the living or for the dead.’
‘He who sees his self in everything and looks upon pleasure and pain equally, is a perfect Yogi.’
The Kuṟaḷ defines the minister thus:
கருவியும் காலமும் செய்கையும் செய்யும்அருவினையும் மாண்ட தமைச்சு. — 64.1
‘A minister is he who grasps, with wisdom large, means, time, work's mode and functions rare he must discharge.’
The Artha Śāstra (i.15) says the ministers shall engage in the following five duties: commencing a work, finding out resources, fixing it according to place and time, protecting against possible dangers, and final consummation.
अकृतारम्भारब्धानुष्ठानमनुष्ठितविशेषं नियोगसंपदं च कर्मणां कुर्युः ।
The Kuṟaḷ prescribes:
சொல்லுக சொல்லைப் பிறிதோர்சொல் அச்சொல்லை
வெல்லுஞ்சொல் இன்மை அறிந்து. — 65.5
வேட்பத்தாஞ் சொல்லிப் பிறர்சொற் பயன்கோடல்
மாட்சியின் மாசற்றார் கோள். — 65.6
‘Speaking out your speech, when once 'tis past dispute That none can utter speech that shall your speech refute.’
‘Charming each hearer's ear, of others' words to seize the sense, Is method wise of men of spotless excellence.’
A good illustration of this maxim is found in the Mahābhārata (Śānti-88,26.34). Here when the kingdom is threatened with an invasion, the king goes to the country and begs for war loans and benevolences by speaking out in sweet, soft and convincing style.
प्रागेव तु धनदानमनुभाष्य ततः पुनः ।
सन्निपत्य स्वविषये प्रदर्शयेत् ॥
इति वाचा मधुरया क्ष्लक्षणया सोपचारया ॥
What the Kuṟaḷ says:
துன்பம் உறவரினும் செய்க துணிவாற்றி
இன்பம் பயக்கும் வினை. — 67.9
எனைத்திட்பம் எய்தியக் கண்ணும் வினைத்திட்பம்
வேண்டாரை வேண்டா துலகு. — 67.10
‘Though toil and trouble face thee, firm resolve hold fast, And do the deeds that pleasure yield at last.’
‘The world desires not men of every power possessed, Who powers in act desire not, crown of all the rest,' is expressed in other words by the Bhagavadgīta. (IV.20)’
क्लैब्यं मा स्म गमःपार्थ नैतत्वमुपयुज्यते ।
क्षुद्रं हृदयदौर्बल्यं त्यक्क्तवोतिष्ठ परन्तप ॥
‘Do not get vexed. This is unbecoming of one like yourself. Give up the detestable weakness of the heart and gird up, oh slayer of foes.’
The prescription of the Kural is as follows (681-4)
அன்புடைமை ஆன்ற குடிப்பிறத்தல் வேந்தவாம்
பண்புடைமை தூதுரைப்பான் பண்பு. — 69.1
அன்பறிவு ஆராய்ந்த சொல்வன்மை தூதுரைப்பார்க்கு
இன்றி யமையாத மூன்று. — 69.2
நூலாருள் நூல்வல்லன் ஆகுதல் வேலாருள்
வென்றி வினையுரைப்பான் பண்பு. — 69.3
அறிவுரு ஆராய்ந்த கல்விஇம் மூன்றன்
செறிவுடையான் செல்க வினைக்கு. — 69.4
‘Benevolence, high birth, the courtesy kings love:— These qualities the envoy of a king approve.’
‘Love, knowledge, power of chosen words, three things, Should he possess who speaks the words of kings.’
‘Mighty in lore amongst the learned must he be, Midst jav❜lin-bearing kings who speaks the words of victory. Sense, goodly grace, and knowledge exquisite, Who hath these three for envoy's task is fit.’Similar ideas are expressed by the law-giver: (Manu. VII. 63-64)
दूतं चैव सर्वशास्त्रविशारदं ।
इङ्गिताकारचेष्टज्ञ शुचिंदक्षं कुलोद्गतम् ।
अनुरक्तः शुचिर्दक्षः स्मृतिमान् देशकालवित् ।
वपुष्मान् वीतिर्भार्वाग्भी दूतो राज्ञः प्रशस्यते ॥
The king shall appoint him an ambassador who is versed in all sciences, who can read the gestures and signs, pure, skilled, of noble family.That ambassador, who is loyal, honest, intelligent of excellent memory, who acts according to time and place, of good physique, hold and possessed of good powers of speech is applauded.

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In the Kuṟaḷ:In term concise, avoiding wrathful speech, who utters pleasant word,

தொகச்சொல்லித் தூவாத நீக்கி நகச்சொல்லி
நன்றி பயப்பதாம் தூது. — 69.5
கற்றுக்கண் ணஞ்சான் செலச்சொல்லிக் காலத்தால்
தக்க தறிவதாம் தூது. — 69.6
‘An envoy he who gains advantage for his lord. An envoy meet is he, well-learned, of fearless eye, Who speaks right home, prepared for each emergency.’
In the Artha Śāstra (I.16)
शासनं च यथोक्तं ब्रूयात् । प्राणबाधे अपि दृष्टे.....
परेण चोक्तः स्वासां प्रकृतीनां परिमाणं नाचक्षीत ।
‘सर्वं वेद भवान्’ इति ब्रूयात् ।
The message is to be delivered in toto, even at the cost of life.... When questioned by the enemy king as to the strength of the lord's forces, pretend ignorance and simply say, ‘you know better’!
Again in the Kuṛaḷ
விடுமாற்றம் வேந்தர்க் குரைப்பான் வடுமாற்றம்
வாய்சோரா வன்க ணவன். — 69.9
இறுதி பயப்பினும் எஞ்சா திறைவற்
குறுதி பயப்பதாம் தூது. — 69.10
‘Integrity, resources, soul determined, truthfulness; Who rightly speaks his message must these marks possess.’
‘His faltering lips must utter no unworthy thing, Who stands, with steady eye, to speak the mandates of his king.’
Death to the faithful one his embassy may bring. The envoy gains assured advantage for his king.'
The Rājanītiratnākara quotes Sukra: (p. 46)
दूतो म्लेच्छोऽप्यवध्यः स्यद्राजा दूतमुखो यतः ।
उद्यतेष्वपि शस्त्रेषु दूतो वदति नान्यथा ॥
स्वापकर्षे परोत्कर्षे दूतोक्तैर्मन्यते च कः ।
सदैवावध्यभावेन दूतः ।सर्वे हि जल्पति ।
The ambassador, though a mlecha, shall not be killed.Hence the dūta is the king's eye. Even when the arms are raised aloft in the act of striking him, he should faithfully deliver his message.
From the words of the duta who would think of his own defects and of the enemy's strength? For the duta speaks always anything he thinks.
இளையர் இனமுறையர் என்றிகழார் நின்ற
ஒளியோ டொழுகப் படும். — 69.8
To the KuṟaḷSay not ‘He's young, my kinsman, despising thus your king; But reverence the glory kingly state doth bring,’
The following may be parallel:A King should not be despised even though a child. He is a great divinity in the form of a man. (Manu.VII.8)
बालोऽपि नावमान्तव्यो मनुष्य इति भूमिपः ।
महती देवता ह्येषा नररूपेण तिष्ठति ॥
In the Kuṟaḷ it is said:
கொளப்பட்டேம் என்றெண்ணிக் கொள்ளாத செய்யார்
துளக்கற்ற காட்சி யவர். —70.9
பழையம் எனக்கருதிப் பண்பல்ல செய்யும்
கெழுதகைமை கேடு தரும். — 70.10
‘We've gained his grace, boots nought what graceless acts we do.’ ‘So deem not sages who the changeless vision view.’
‘Who think 'we're ancient friends,' and do unseemly things: To these familiarity sure ruin brings.’
Similar ideas are found in the following discussion in the Artha Śāstra (I. 8)
सहायाध्यायिनोऽमात्यान् कुर्वीत दृढशौचसामर्थ्यात्वात् इति भारद्वाजः ।
ते ह्यस्य विश्वस्याः भवन्तीति । नेति विशालाक्षः ।
सहक्रीडितत्वात् परिभवन्त्येनं ।
ये ह्यस्य गुह्य सधर्मणास्तानमात्यान् कुर्वीत — समान शीलव्यसनत्वात् ।
ते ह्यस्य मर्मज्ञभयान्नापराध्यन्तीति ।
साधारण एव दोष इति पराशरः— तेषामपि मर्मज्ञभयात् कृताकृतान्यनुवर्तेत ॥
Says Bharadvāja: ‘the king shall appoint as his ministers his classmates as he would have understood their honesty and tact. They could be easily trusted.’ ‘No,’ says Viśālākṣa ‘as playmates they would not respect him. He shall therefore appoint those whose secrets are well known to him. Possessed of conduct and defects in common with the king these do not entertain harm to him lest their secrets should be divulged.’
This is very common saysParāśara
‘for the king may follow them in their good and bad actions lest his own secrets be divulged.’
The Kuṟaḷ defines:
தள்ளா விளையுளும் தக்காரும் தாழ்விலாச்
செல்வரும் சேர்வது நாடு. — 74.1
‘Where spreads fertility unfailing, where resides a band Of virtuous men, and those of ample wealth, call that a ‘land’’
பெரும்பொருளால் பெட்டக்க தாகி அருங்கேட்டால்
ஆற்ற விளைவது நாடு. — 74.2
‘That is a 'land' which men desire for wealth's abundant share. Yielding rich increase, where calamities are rare.’Baudhāyana says: ‘A righteous man shall seek to dwell in a village where fuel, water, fodder, sacred fuel, kuśa grass, and garlands are plentiful, access to which is easy, where many rich people dwell, which abounds in industrious people and where Āryans form the majority, and which is not easily entered by robbers.
’प्रभूतैघोदकयवससमित्कुशमाल्योनिष्क्रमाणमाढ्यजनाकुलमनलससमृद्धमार्यजनभूयिष्ठमदस्युप्रवेश्यं ग्राममावसितुंयतेत धार्मिकः (II.iii.51)
What the Kuṟaḷ says:
இருபுனலும் வாய்ந்த மலையும் வருபுனலும்
வல்லரணும் நாட்டிற் குறுப்பு. — 74.7
‘Waters from rains and springs, a mountain near, and waters thence; These make a land, with fortress' sure defence.’is also mentioned by the Kauṭilya.
The fortresses of rivers and mountains are sources of defence to the country parts.Chapter 74 entitled nāṭu of the Kuṟaḷ corresponds roughly to the chapter on जनपदनिवेश of the Artha Śāstra, Bk. ii, 1.
Chapter 75 entitiled araṇ of the Kuṟaḷ corresponds roughly to the chapter दुर्गविधान in the Artha Śāstra Bk. ii, 3.
नदीपर्वतदुर्ग जनपदारक्षस्थानानाम्
What the Kuṟaḷ says:
பொருளல் லவரைப் பொருளாகச் செய்யும்பொருளல்ல தில்லை பொருள். — 76.1)
‘Nothing exists, save wealth, that can Change man of nought to worthy man.’is thus explained in the Rāmāyaṇa.
यस्यार्थस्तस्य मित्राणि यस्यार्थस्तस्य बान्धवाः ।
यस्यार्थस्तस्य स पुमान् लोके यस्यार्थाः स च पण्डितः ॥
यस्यार्थाः स च विक्रान्तो यस्यार्थाः स च बुद्धिमान् ।
यस्यार्थाः स महाभागो यस्यार्थाः स महागुणः ॥— (Yuddha khāṇḍa.83.35-36)
To a man of wealth, there are friends, and relatives. He is the worthy man of the world, and becomes a Paṇḍita.He is a man of prowess and wisdom. He is a great man of good qualities.
What the Kuṟaḷ says:
ஒண்பொருள் காழ்ப்ப இயற்றியார்க் கெண்பொருள்
ஏனை இரண்டும் ஒருங்கு. — 76.10
‘Who plenteous store of glorious wealth have gained, By them the other two are easily obtained,’ is explained thus by Vātsyāyana.
Between wealth and kingdom, wealth is superior. Through the means of wealth, lokayātra and kāma are realized. This is the position of the Trivarga.
अर्थश्च राज्ञः
अर्थस्तु राज्ञो गरीयान् इति
तन्मूलत्वलोकयात्रायाः
वेश्यायाश्च इति त्रिवर्गप्रतिपत्तिः— (Kāmasūtra.I..15-17)
In the Kuṟaḷ it is said:‘With stronger than thyself, turn from the strife away;’
வலியார்க்கு மாறேற்றல் ஓம்புக ஓம்பா
மெலியார்மேல் மேக பகை. — 87.1
‘With weaker shun not, rather court the fray.’
Kauṭilya prescribes: Court agreement of peace with equal and superior foes. Fight with the weaker.तमज्यायोभ्यां सन्धीयेत ह्यनेन विगृहीयात् ।— (Kāmasūtra. VII.3)
According to the Kuṟaḷ
இருமனப் பெண்டிரும் கள்ளும் கவறும்
திருநீக்கப் பட்டார் தொடர்பு. — 92.10
‘Women of double minds, strong drink, and dice: to these giv'n o'er. Are those on whom the light of Fortune shines no more’
In the Artha Śāstra:
परिभवः द्रव्यनाशः कामः ....
कामजस्तु मर्गय द्यूतं स्त्रियः पानमिति चतुरवर्ग : (VIII. 3)
Public censure and loss of wealth are due to Kāma. Kāma comprises hunting, gambling, women and drinking.
In the chapter on the Puruṣavyasaṅavarga ?, Kautilya refers to the four-fold vice under the category of Kāma. These are hunting, gambling, women and drinking. The effects of these evil habits are discussed in detail. Tiruvaḷḷuvar, on the other hand, devotees two chapters on the vyasanas of women (91 and 92), one chapter on drinking (93), and one chapter on gambling (94). Apparently the author of the Kuṟaḷ does not treat hunting as such a vice as the other three. In fact hunting is recognized as a valuable form of exercise to kings by Kalidāsa in his Śākuntalā. Nor is Kauṭilya unaware of its beneficial effects.

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5.9. KĀMATTUPPĀL

There are two views with regard to this particular volume. One is that Vaḷḷuvar gives expression to purely Tamiḻ aspect of Kāma. According to this the whole can be conveniently divided into Kaḷaviyal and Kaṟpiyal, and these again are based on the five Tiṇais peculiar to the Tamiḻs. But the celebrated commentator of the Kuṟaḷ would again find correspondences between this treatment of the subject and that in Sanskrit literature. According to that authority Kaḷaviyal and Kaṟpiyal correspond to the samyoga and vipralambha of the Kāmasūtra treatises. In the Kaḷaviyal section again Parimēlaḻakar would find corresponding terms for the different incidents like selavu ? (Sanskrit - pravāsa, āṟṟāmai (Sanskrit — viraga) viṭuppu (Sanskrit — ayogam), and pulavi (Sanskrit, — mānam). The Sanskritists add the fifth incident sapa ?. As this is quite uncommon, says the commentator, Vaḷḷuvar did not include it in his treatment of the subject. While the chapter (116) pirivāṟāmai is devoted to selavu ?, the chapters (117-26) deal with the āṟṟāmai, viṭuppu is dealt with in three chapters (127-9), while the last four chapters (130-33) are devoted to the incident of pulavi.

End of V.R.R. Dik****ar's studies