There is no gem in the whole field of Tamil literature more precious than Tirukkuṟaḷ by Tiruvaḷḷuvar written either before or after its composition. He is a master of Tamil language as reflected in his choice of words and their power to communicate in a striking manner. As one moves through his text, the reader will be simply astounded with his knowledge of lifestyle and world view. He can take one word and spin it with different forms onto a couplet, taking the reader to the highest sphere of understanding which would still remain beyond to give more comprehension.
The more one is learned, the more he appreciates the subtler meanings of writings. There is a popular saying in Tamil, “that if you take a mustard seed and drill a hole in it and pour seven oceans, there will be still more in it and that is Kuṟaḷ.” Each couplet is so small poetic form but pragmatic with such a vast content of meaning, feels he needs to learn more. It is clear that Tirukkuṟaḷ cannot be fully comprehended by even the average reader. It is not possible to translate it in the conventional format as has been attempted by so many scholars. All those attempts are imperfect because they are trying to give the exact equivalent of the Tamil words in English. The Tirukkuṟaḷ is not that but contains a full of suggestive background meaning, like an Upaniṣad in Tamiḻ.
Tirukkuṟaḷ by Tiruvaḷḷuvar is the most celebrated work in Tamiḻ, that has received world wide recognition for its unique character.It is essentially a work on dharma, consisting of 1330 Poetic couplets, divided into three major volumes titled — Aṟattupāl, Poruṭpāl, Kāmattuppāl.
Each of the volumes is divided into a number of parts and each part into adhikāram, each chapter with ten couplets with separate heading.There are 130 adhikāras thus each with 10 verses each.Each part of the volume carries uneven number of adhikāras, as below:
1. 38 adhikāras
2. adhikāras
3. adhikāras
Each couplets consist of two lines in a meter called Kuṟaḷ (short verse) the first line is generally long and the second short.
There are differences of opinion among scholars whether the titles furnished were originally given by the author or were added later.
There are some fanciful stories about the author but we know his name was Tiruvaḷḷuvar, and his work is called Tirukkuṟaḷ.Vaḷḷuvar is associated with Mylapore a central part of Chennai now and his wife was Vāsuki Ammai.
A 17th century Text in Tamiḻ Jñāṇāṇavaraṇa Viḷakam calls him a great Śaivite saint who originates Śaiva Santana Paramparā like Tirumūlar, Śivavākyar and others who were held as great mystics.
There are a number of commentaries on this work almost from 13th century, the most celebrated one being that of Parimēlaḻagar, who is said to have been a priest in the Viṣṇu temple of Kañci. He, however, quotes from the Vedas and also Śaiva Āgamās and it is a famous commentary, among the Tamiḻ commentators.
There are ten ancient commentators known from various sources. The list is as follows:
1. Parimēl-aḻagar
2. Manakuṭavar
3. Parithiyār
4. Kāliṅgar
5. Pariperumāḷ
6. Dharma
7. Dāmattār
8. Naccar
9. Tirumaliyār
10. Mallar
The commentaries of the last five have not been traced.There are evidences to show that there were commentaries before Parimēlaḻagar. His successors have mostly followed him. There is one commentator Paritiyār, whose commentary is brief but in most cases he gives a Śaivite version in his interpretation.
Vaḷḷuvar's language and vocabulary are extraordinary, beautiful. He follows the Dharma Śāstras in expressing order, advice or negatively suggest positive meanings.
Obviously he is one of the greatest thinkers in Tamil literature, and as the great Tamil Poet Subramanya Bhārati, sang in his poem that by giving Vaḷḷuvar in the Tamiḻ country reached sky in glory. (வள்ளுவன்தன்னைஉலகினிக்கேதந்துவான்புகழ்கொண்டதமிழ்நாடு).
Before going to other aspects I want to say that there was an English Governor then at Madras, Ellis by name, who was an administrator under the British East India Company, who was not a Christian missionary, but a true lover of Tamiḻ literature.
He studied under some traditional Tamiḻ scholars and soon mastered Tamiḻ Language and started composing in Tamil. He has left a stone inscription in Chennai, in chaste Tamiḻ poetry, stating being inspired by Vaḷḷuvar's poetry. (He repeats the Kuṟaḷ) he had dug seven drinking water wells in North Madras which still exist and the region is called seven wells.
There could therefore be no two opinions that Vaḷḷuvar stands as a Himalayan peak among Tamiḻ poets.
It must also be said that from the 17th to 19th century was a great period when Christian missionaries took interest in the study of Tamiḻ language with the coastal trade, bringing many European visitors to South India. The paid Christain Missionaries were also seeking the help of European rulers to convert people to Christian faith.
Their most important assignment was soon turned to attack the local faith and which they propagated as the base Brāhmanical religion. In this venture they propagated the regional language was far superior and glorious while the Northern language was alien which has suppressed the regional language.
I cite a few examples added in this study of Christian view on Tirukkuṟaḷ.I have been studying the structured layout of Tirukkuṟaḷ in the overall scenario of the early Saṅgam Literature, mainly the:
1. Saṅgam poems the Aham and Puṟam group of poems
2. Tolkāppiyam, the ancient Tamil grammar and
3. The Silappadikāram which were considered the most original contributions of the Tamil to a separate identity.
I have already made it clear that the Saṅgam anthology of aham and puṟam group of songs were essentially based on Nāṭya Śāstra division as Śṛṅgāra/Lāsya/Sukumāra group to which aham group belong and Aviddha exploits Puṟam group.
However the main thrust of these poems is perfect by the four Puruṣārthās — dharma, artha and kāma (and mokṣa), aṟam, poruḷ and iṉpam in the poems themselves.
I have also shown that Tolkāppiyam was mainly influenced by Naṭyaśāstra tradition with its chapters especially aham, puṟam, meipaṭu, kaḷavu, Kaṟpu etc.,
I have also shown the most important text Silapadikāram is a Nāṭaka Kāpiyam, which is totally laid out on the basis of Nāṭyaśāstra.It is against these studies that, Tirukkuṟaḷ also needs to be studied.
The dates of these groups of ancient Tamiḻ literature are fairly now clear — first century B.C. to second century CE.The present claim is the first century B.C.
I have no objection to this date and place it along with Saṅgam anthologies Tolkāpiyam and Silappadikāram.
I am presenting, on the basis of above the basic tenets of Vaḷḷuvar are Vedic system of life style, which is an alternate approach.
Particularly an episode in the Silappadikāram that needs attention. At the very beginning, Silappadikāram introduces the marriage of Kaṇṇaki and Kōvalaṉ, who were heroine and hero of the work, both of them belonged to merchant community Vaṇikās. They belonged to different faiths — one belonged to Ajīvika faith and the other belonged to Jaina faith. It is especially stated in the text itself.
However their marriage was performed according to Vedic system as directed by a Vedic Brāhmaṇa. It was the Pāṇigrahaṇa system holding the hand and the whole marriage was as per “maṟaivaḻi” — Vaidika system. The text is based on the glorification of “Kaṟpu” system of marriage — which is laid in the Vedas.
It makes it absolutely clear that irrespective facts — Jainism, Budddhism or Ajīvika, the life style of the house-holder of India followed the Vedic Dharma.
The second point I would like to emphasize is Asoka's edicts. I have shown earlier that Asoka's Dharma was the age old Vedic Upaniṣadic system which he calls paurāṇi prakṛti “ancient system”.
His edicts are nothing but verbatim repetition of the Śiksavalli the Taittiriya Upaniṣad.
Against all these background Tirukkuṟaḷ of Vaḷḷuvar needs to be evaluated. There are a few points that need to be stressed at the beginning.
1. Vaḷḷuvar's work based on dharma, artha, kāma and mokṣa which are the four Puruṣārthas of the Vedic system. The main division of his work is titled Aṟam meaning Dharma, Poruḷ meaning Artha and Kāmam meaning inpam a clear induction of the Vedic puruṣārthas.
2. Vaḷḷuvar has accepted and writes in his text the four fold Varṇa system called caste system as Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya and Sūdras. He has not considered them as projected by the modern selfish politicians.
3. vaḷḷuvar has accepted the four Āśrama systems — Brahmacāri, Gṛhasta, Vānaprasta and Sanyāsa.
4. He has accepted the Vedic rituals of Pañca Mahā Yajñās to Deva, Ṛṣi, Pitṛ, Atithi and living beings. And he recommends the performance of these rituals as important.
I am elaborating in the succeeding parts that he was a true follower of Vedic Dharma Śāstra tradition in all his work. The layout of his work is nothing but the layout plan of the Dharma Śāstra like Manu, Yājñavalkya, Āpastamba, Bodhāyana and others followed by Arthaśāstra and Nāṭyaśāstra.
I will be concluding my work with this observation that many scholars mainly Christian writers that Vaḷḷuvar's system is a unique Tamiḻ system while the Hindu system was offensive. I am praising these scholars at the end because all the praises they heaped on Kuṟaḷ on Vaḷḷuvar would go to the Vedic system and Vaḷḷuvar was a brilliant exponent of the age old Vedic system and a part of that whole Indian system.
All the encomiums of scholars go to the ancient Vedic Hinduism which always emphasized same darśana the Brāhmins who were upright and impartial in their dealings were considered the model of humanity, as declared by Buddha, Aśoka and all great thinkers.
There could be no doubt that Vaḷḷuvar was most outspoken champion of Vedic traditions.
In fact, even the most serious western scholars have commented, it is in that footsteps of Bhagavad Gīta. Like the upaniṣadic sages, Vaḷḷuvar has given a Vedic Upanaiṣad in Tamiḻ, so much so the people call it the Tamiḻ Veda on the personal and communal life style of man.
In Sanskrit tradition, the earliest literary compositions of poetry are the Vedas. They are two parts as rituals and eternal teachings dealing with understanding the power of each individual souls, the ātma, the later called the Vedantic Upaniṣads. Leaving aside the ritual aspects some of which are primitive in nature as they were composed nearly five thousand years ago. The second part, the Vedāntic Upaniṣads are thrilling utterances of ancient Indian seers which remain marvels of universal appeals. As they sprang from the deepest of inner revelation, they are called “Śrutis”, the voice heard from the inner self of the noblest of Indian seers, the Ṛṣis. Though there was no recognizable script then and most of them were of accented words, they discovered a system of committing to memory not only the words and sentences but also the individual syllables and the origin of each and every sound, they could preserve the entire text without change or pronunciation. The united nation has recognised this system as a unique contribution of the human mind to preserve ancient thoughts. So the Vedāntic doctrine has come down for the past few thousand years.
There were many thinkers after several centuries who learnt this body of literature and who were experiencers and practitioners of these precepts and were of pure hearts, with no likes or dislikes, who loved the life principles in every living beings and who compiled their experiences, for the benefit of their successors. They were like Manu, Yājñavalkya, Gautama, Āpastamba and Bodhāyana and whose writings came to be called “Dharma Śāstras”. Dharma is that which sustains of civilized way of living “dhāraṇa iti dharma”, it was conceived as a chariot on which civilization will march. These were all based on the Vedāntic principles and are recollected in code of books. So they are Vedānta for the life of man and were called “recollections” “Smṛtis”. Otherwise also, called “Dharma Śāstras”. They are not originals as Vedas but assumed the same authority as the Vedas. To these two bodies of works “Śruti” and “Smṛti” added what we may call “DO'S” & “DON'TS”, which they called “vidhis” and “niṣedas”. These forms gradually assumed the power of law and formed the “core ideas” of what we call the Dharma of Land — the “Śāstras”.
The population was unimaginably low and they were living in small groups in different regions and there was migration too. They were the pillars of the four Vedic traditions and also their customs and manners. Their teachings assumed two aspects of Indian systems as upadeśa counsels, and ādeśa — order both combined. The people were made to realize they were not only enforceable but also benevolent advice as the Upaniṣad said “this is the order and this advice” — eṣa ādeśa — eṣaupadeśa. So Dharma was both advice and enforceable by law.Asoka the great Indian monarch, who has left several edicts on stone walls — showing this ancient tradition, paruaṇi prakṛti,at the end of edict “this is my advice and is the order to be obeyed.” Dharma is not a threatening force but an advisory law.
As population grew and migration to various long distances became common, minor variations arose among the regional customs.
The Dharma Śāstras were aware of the need to accommodate the minor changes while retaining the core laws. While they emphasised the core values, they also advised adoption of minor regional or group characters. For example, Gautama emphasized core laws, Manu, Yājñavalkya, Bodhāyana and Āpastamba clearly approved the regional variations. The concept of steam rolling a culture was never the case in Indian religion. So the clarion call of one group imposing one's concept on others had no role in Indian life. Just as so many forces are recognised as multiple divine powers and were worshipped as multiple gods, in the social life also the variant conducts customs and manners were perfectly accepted and are the back bone of Indian system, while the Indian system throughout emphasized respect for multiple way of living within a common code of life.
It never thrusts one form alone as the way of religion or lifestyle. Unlike the occidental system which thrusts its concept as the one that should survive and all others should be converted to their own, Indian system accepted multiplicity of life and customs, so much so there are several Dharma Śāstras propounded by a number of them.
For example several royal copper plates of the Pallavas, Chōḻas, Pāṇdyas and others, show over 15 groups of followers of Dharma Śāstras living in Tamiḻnāṭu among the Vedic colonies like:
1. Āpastamba
2. Bodhāyana
3. Āśvalāyana
4. Drāhyayana
5. Satyāṣada
6. Jaimini
7. Agniveśyas
8. Bhāradvaja
9. Kātyayana
10. Agastya
11. Gautama
12. Kaṇva
13. Śambavya
are mentioned among Vedic Brāhmaṇas to whom the King Rājēndra Chōḻa gifted land and house sites at Puttūr near Tanjore, where over 1000 Vedic Brāhmins were settled. Each of these groups had their own Dharma Śāstras and followed them.
At this stage, it may be necessary to keep in mind that the Dharma Śāstras are generally divided into three parts as Dharma Sūtras, Gṛhya Sūtras and Kalpa Sūtras; the Dharma Sūtras generally deal with legal aspect, the Gṛhya Sūtras with domestic life and the Kalpa Sūtras on ritual sacrifices. However there may be some overlapping between the first two. We are not concerned with third namely Kalpa Sūtras. We need to know the first two, the Manu's Dharma Śāstras and Yājñavalkya are most popular mainly dealing with personal life and governmental (Royals) functions including civil administration and judicial administration. Among them, Manu's text is the earliest as it is closer to Vedic age and therefore gets primordial attention.
There is a general misunderstanding about Manu's text in recent times with unscrupulous politicians twisting the contents as religious life and oppose it. It is far from it. The very first Sūtra of Manu says it deals with extremely honest scholars who maintain absolute impartiality in dealing with men and matters, who are above pride and prejudices, wants and hatreds and who will listen to their inner conscience to arrive at judgment and it deals with worldly life style (laukika dharma) and not the religious matters. The question of extremism has no place in Manu. We will be seeing many verses including the phrases that are literally repeated in Tirukkuṟaḻ. Similar is the case with Yājñavalkya Smṛti.
Another character of Indian life is the role of what is called lineage, and the Dharma Sūtra that plays a crucial role in an individual's life. Every family especially vedic Brāhmins and Kings and those who claim lineage among Kṣatriya and Vaiśya that they have preserved to this day their gotras name and sūtra of the sage. The gotras are the personal lineage, the sūtras are the collective code they follow. If you ask them, they will mention gotras like Atri, Bhāradvaja, Gautama, Kauśika and Agastya, etc., and in addition they will mention the Sūtra like Āpastamba, Bodhāyana, Aśvalāyana, Kaṇva, Agastya, etc., which are their Dharma Śāstras they follow. Though they belong to the clan of some Āchāryās who came later like Rāmanuja's Vaishnavism or Śaivism, they are in fact the followers of the Āpastamba or Bodhāyana Sūtras. Even if their religious denomination are different, the Sūtra group continues to operate in their domestic life like birth, marriage, death rites, etc., It is an amazing system that has come down for the four thousand years in the life of individuals in India. So these examples are considered as one group, there are so many sub groups among them based on the Sūtras. However, the core values of them remain the same.
Similarly the caste system through the centuries was divided into four major castes as Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya and Śūdra; this caste system was not the creation of the Brāhmins, who are accused in modern times. The caste system arose from profession from time immemorial. There are in the Vedas more than 150 castes/professions in the Vedic times. So this material divisions through the times in centuries is attributed to God as not based on birth but on individual profession and quality, Brāhmaṇas were one of the castes created according Indian tradition. The Dharma ŚāstrasBrāhmaṇas were created for protection of dharma in the society. Therefore they were entrusted with the responsibility to act as judicial officers to help in the maintenance of law in the country. This social custom need to be kept in mind when we read Tirukkuṟaḷ.
Another important factor that needs grasp is social mobility. The Dharma Śāstra of Manu and others speak of eight forms of marriages, which are not based on castes but situations. Nor did they prohibit inter-caste marriages in early period. Inter caste marriages were quite common for examples. Brāhmins marrying other caste girls was quite common. The Brāhmin girls were married to Kings and King's daughters or relatives married Brāhmins attested by epics and epigraphy. For example, Asvattama was a Brāhmaṇa and son of Āchārya Droṇa. His son was Pallava. The Chōḻas claimed Kāśyapa gotra — Karikālan son Kiḷivaḷavan married a Nāga girl. The progeny of mixed caste were not prohibited at the time of Manu but the progenies were given specific professions; but it only has to be legal marriage; it has to be done in the presence of Agni and elders and bridegroom taking a vow to protect the girl till the end of his life.
Vaḷḷuvar's birth as the son of Brāhamaṇa and Pariah girl should be viewed in the light of the custom prevalent at that time and not as described by G.U. Pope, who tried to make him a Christian in the 19th century. Pope also forgot one vital point. In order to become a Christian, one has to get what himself would call “Jnyāna Snānam” from a priest. Pope in his imaginary account of Vaḷḷuvar, has not mentioned this vital event, which proves deliberate writings in his account of Vaḷḷuvar. One can say that he did not study any proper Indian system prevalent then and frankly admitted his account on Vaḷḷuvar is a imaginary fiction to suit his conversion motive. Any average historian will brush aside Pope's account as absolute rubbish. To give it in the proper perspective, I have included Pope's account of Vaḷḷuvar as published in 1886 so that the reader can see for himself the inadmissible of Pope's history.
Another point that needs attention is, that this country (India) was divided by Manu only as three major zones as Brahmaṛṣi Deśa, Madhya Deśa and Ārya Deśa (also called Ārya Varta). The country west of Kurukṣetra (including) Pañcaśīla, Sauraṣṭra, etc were called Brahmaṛṣi Deśa; The land between Himalayas in the North, Vindhyas in the West of Prayāg — as Madhya Deśa and the country West of Eastern ocean, East of Western ocean and bounded by mountains and sea was called Āryavarta or Ārya Deśa. Please see the groupings of the country — it was based on space and not based on language. He does not even refer to Dakṣina Deśa — the southern country. Not that there were different languages. They were rudimentary states and were gradually evolving in different regions. As Manu was the oldest law giver, it is evident that at his time even Tamilnadu was also a part of Āryadeśa which he also calls as Yajñabhūmi. Division of the country on the basis of language, Andhra, Karnātaka, Magadha, etc., seems to be clearly a later development, indicating the considerable importance of developing languages. To put it in the proper perspective, Tamiḻnāṭu was known as Āryadeśa about 4000 years ago: The linguistic cohesion is a later development.
This was considered so by the Ancient Tamiḻs is clear from the Saṅgam literature, where when the country was mentioned, it is referred to from Himalayas to Podikai hills (Kanyākumari) regions. While linguistic Zones were considered, they referred to it as from Veṅkadam in the North and Kumari in the South. (See the first Tamil verse in Puranānūru).
So the social laws that were prevalent in the Tamiḻ country was the same prevailing all over India with minor variations in regions. The core rules remained the same and must be kept in mind while studying Vaḷḷuvar's text. Inscriptions, literature, dialects and archaeological excavations have proved that Tamiḻnāṭu was part of one India, though dynasties of rulers differed and languages differed but the legal and administrative set up remained one, throughout India. One can study fully any part of regional history and add to it chronology, which enables us to view the true state of society.
This study is not to translate the whole Tirukkuṟaḷ. Many scholars have done admirable attempts, though I consider that these attempts are focussed on word to word translations, which conveys one hundredth of what the actual meaning of Kuṛaḷ. No doubt some have given valuable notes on them, which are extremely useful.
However, my book is from a different angle. I have some select passages from the Kuṟaḷ and shown that the content of this text is virtually an abridgement of Sanskrit Śāstras, namely the Dharma Śāstra, Artha Śāstra and Nāṭya Śāstra and the layout and structure of the country are closely following the above texts For example, I consider that the Aṟattuppāl, the first chapter deals with the personal life of individual, the second Poruṭppāl about royal rights and privileges, the administrative and judicial functions including punishment and other social and communal life, while the third Kāmattuppāl deals with Akatiṇai dealing with amorous life of the individual, divided into pre martial love and legal love that is hero, heroine and her playmate.
This broad divisions must be further sub divided as follows:1. The Aṟattuppāl is in four sub parts (chapters)
1. a) Brahmacāri state (student ship),
2. b) Gṛhasta for householders' life
3. c) The Vānaprasta life
4. d) Sarva Sanyāsa
On this, I have differed slightly from traditional division. This attributes the first four chapters of Aṟattuppal to be addressed to students and the teachers' conduct.
The Brahmacharya, Gṛhasta, Vānaprasta and Sarva Sanyāsa are for a different attribute. The Dharma Śāstras follow this pattern of structure.
