16.1. Five Land Divisions The Camakam, hymns of the Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda appearing as the seventh prapāṭaka of the fourth kāṇḍam, refers to five divisions of land which is of interest. The Camakam passage, appears after the Śrī Rudram, and addresses Rudra saying that the reciter is in possession of several requirements for worshipping him, like food, health etc. Among them it also lists five kinds of lands. They are: • Land of Rocky boulders - “asmā ca me” • Fertile land that lends intself to cultivation - “mṛttikā ca me” • High land - “girayasya ca me” • Mountain, and its surroundings- “parvatās ca me” • Sandy land - “sikatas ca me” 1. Asmā - Rocky Land The rocky land is full of rocky boulders, shrubs that have thorny bushes and wild trees. This type of land is called generally as desert land. The inhabitants of these lands usually indulge in highway robbery and cattle lifting. These rocky boulders crack during unbearable heat of sun's rays during summer. These are identical with what is called Pālai, desert lands in Tamiḻ literature. Pālai is derived from the word Pāḻ. 2. Mṛttika - Cultivable Land Mṛttika is soil, most suited for cultivating paddy, vegetables, and other grains, generally with good earth that could be ploughed. In all auspicious functions, it is customary to bring earth from the riverbed or anthills and use for sowing grains, Pālikai which sprout quickly as a symbol of fertility. This rite of bringing fertile earth, called Mṛtsaṅgrahaṇa is performed in all marriage functions. Thus, Mṛttikā stands for fertile soil or cultivable land. It is called in Tamiḻ literature as Marutam, derived from mṛt. The people occupying such lands have settled life and are engaged in cultivation and the lands are also called Nāḍu. 3. Girayaiḥ - High Land The third mentioned in the Vedas, is Girayaḥ which according to Monier William’s Sanskrit Dictionary, stands for elevated land (also called high land). The high land is generally used for grazing cattle by cowherds/sheperds. It is called meittāṉ kāḍuḷ mullai in Tamiḻ. 4. Parvatās- Hilly Region Hill and its slopes are used by hill tribes called Kuṉṟavās who collect honey and hunt animals and birds. The hill and its slopes are called Kuruñci in Tamiḻ Literature. 5. Sikatā - Sandy Land Sandy land generally referred to seashores and river called as Neidal in Tamiḻ. It is important to note that the earliest Tamiḻ grammar refers to 5 kinds of land divisions called Kuruñci, Mullai, Marutam, Neidal and Pālai. The divisions are said to be presided over by Kumāra, Kaṇṇaṉ, Indra, Varuṇa and Durgā repectively. It may be seen that all are Vedic gods.
The presiding deity of hill, according to Tolkāppiyar is “Cēyoṉ” standing for Kumaraṉ. I have shown earlier that the word “Muruka” is derived from “Mṛgaya”, a Sanskrit word for hunter. His illustrious mounts are pea**** and elephant which are found in hills. His food is Tiṇaimāvu, honey, and other hill products.
In Saṅgam literature the legend of Kumāra's birth is detailed in Paripāḍal, in which frequent references to Muruga as Cēyoṉ and Kumāra is seen. His name as Subrahmaṇya is also derived from his associations with Vedic sacrifices. It is therefore evident that Kumāraṉ/Cēyoṉ is a Vedic god.
Tolkāppiyam refers to the presiding deity of Mullai as “Māyoṉ” a term used to refer Vāsudeva Kṛṣṇa. He belongs to the Yādavā class that is cowherds. Kṛṣṇā's identity with Viṣṇu of Vedas is well attested by inscriptions assignable to 2nd century BCE of the Sātavāhanās, found in Mahārāṣtra. So, Māyoṉ is also a Vedic deity.
“Marutam” mentioned in Tolkāppiyam is said to be presided by “Indra” who killed Vṛttrāsura and brought down rain and rivers for irrigating the lands to make them fertile. Indra is the presiding deity of the cultivable lands or agricultural lands with settled life. So, Indra became the presiding deity of “Marutam”. It is too well known that Indra is a Vedic God. Indra’s festival (Indra Viḻā) was celebrated in Tamiḻnāḍu from the Saṅgam age.
“Varuṇa” the other Vedic God of both rivers and oceanic waters is the presiding deity of the sandy land both at seashore and riverbeds. Varuṇa's role in Vedas is well known as a Vedic god.
The desert land according to Tolkāppiyam is presided by “Durgā” who is also identified with Koṟṟavai repeatedly in Tamiḻ literature. The scorching Sun and cracking boulders with thorny bushes and wild trees show the underlying heat and it is the power of Agni, fire that is called Durgā in the Vedas.
Durgā is a word in the Vedas to indicate the power of taking men through difficult path. The inhabitants of the dessert land who lived by highway robbery and lifting cattle from nearby communities (cattle lifting) worshipped Koṟṟavai before their pursuits.
It is interesting to mention that Śri Rudram of the Vedas refer to the cultivators, hill tribes, hunters, fishermen, and highway robbers and identified them with the God Rudra Śiva himself. There is no hierarchy of higher and lower caste among any of them as all of them are identical with God. Not only among the human beings but also all forms of living beings including animals, birds, reptiles, trees, and plants which are born and sprout due to the life principle in them. This Yajur Vedic passage is specific on this point and identifies God with the solar energy, the Sūrya. None was considered as outsider of Vedic civilization.
Thus, the fivefold division of the land, the presiding deities of these lands and the inhabitants of these subdivisions of land were mentioned in the Vedas as part of their culture in the Śatarudrīya and Camakam part of Kṛṣṇa Yajur Veda.
16.2. Archaeology of castes The origin of castes, their role in society, and their evil effects are hotly debated, represented, and even misrepresented, from very early periods. It would be interesting to see what one important section of the Veda “Śrī Rudram” has to say about the existence of castes at that time. This amazing Vedic passage lists over one hundred existing castes which essentially is an enumeration of what existed in the whole society then. “Śrī Rudram” extols Rudra who is none other than Sūrya (Sun) with his solar system, as the Primordial God (Parama puruṣa) on earth. It's rays, as they emerge on the horizon, dispels the darkness and spur man and other beings into activity. The sun's rays are called arrows, and the sun is poetically called an archer with a bow. Further, the rays are praised as having two inseparable powers, one the heat, which essentially nourishes all life, but can also destroy when scorching, and the second, the all-pervasive brightness, the former called Rudra and the latter called Viṣṇu. This Vedic passage is essentially an adoration of this dual deity. As vital heat is required in everybody, this deity is said to reside in every living being.
All castes are equal: It is in this context that a major part of the passage goes on to list all the castes of men in the society and says that Rudra resides in every one of them and the poet says, “I salute them”. Every caste, and there are more than one hundred castes, is mentioned individually by name and the devotee salutes it. It makes no distinction between one caste and the other, no caste superior to another as all have the same divinity in them. The commentators also emphasize this point. What is important to note is the four-fold system of caste is not referred to at all here in this context.
A careful study of the long comprehensive list of clans/castes show that the caste names were derived from their environment and vocation, like Vanyas living in woods, Kulālas (potters), Karmāras (artisans) and others. A fivefold classification of the land is mentioned in a general way as Hilly region (Parvatās), Highlands (Giris), Fertile land (Mṛittika), Sandy land like the shores and riverbanks (Sikatas) and Rocky land (Asmakas). This is found in “Camakam” as a supplement of the same passage. The list is very carefully arranged in the passage and grouped according to the professions. Some had leaders who were mentioned separately in additions to their castes. A number of these clan/caste names have come down to this day for the past four thousand years. We are guided by the commentators in understanding the professions of some of them and will examine a few here.
Vanniyar/Vanya were those who lived in woods Vanas, (with pleasant groves, fruit bearing trees etc). They are grouped with Kakṣyas - wood cutters who clear shrubs in Vanas (Kāḍu-veṭṭis). Their leader is mentioned as Vanānāmpati, indicating they were the masters or chieftains of woods. There were other hunters in woods who were considered a specialized group like Dhanvins archers, veṭṭis. Their mastery of bow and arrow and skill in clearing bushes might have given them the duty of protecting the people around cultivable lands. Their services must have been also utilized by the rulers as army in times of wars. Some of them were adept at catching birds in the woods with their nets. Those, who lived in rocky avid lands, called the Araṇyas (later Eyinars) practised highway robbery, and cattle lifting. They too hunted animals and caught birds. Fishermen who caught fish with nets especially in the sea were the Niṣādas. The tillers and cultivators living in agricultural lands were called “Urvaras”, later “Uḻavars”. Another branch associated with them were “Kalyas”, who were in charge of threshing floors (kalams in Tamiḻ). They were the settled people (food producers), and it was amongst them the rulers lived in Nāḍu as against Kāḍu. Another group that attracts attention are the hill tribes as Giricaras and Kuluncas and their Chiefs. The latter were probably identical with Kuluvas who frequently appear in Kuravañci dance dramas of later periods. They were saluted in the passage individually. Among the artisans listed were Takṣas (Taccas-carpenters and also Sculptors), Rathakāras who were architects and builders of chariots, Kulālas later Kuyavas - Potters and Karmāras the later Kammālas who were saluted by the poets as gods. Others we need to know where the “Dūtas” and “Prahitas”. the former being messengers from one person to another, while the latter were the later day “Paraiyas” who were announcers and communicators of all news, especially of importance to the community as a whole by beating drums (Parai). They played a very important role in society till recent times, until their role was supplanted by the media like Radio, TV, and Newspaper. Their caste name is derived from the word “Parai” - to tell, (prāha) say or communicate, which is used in that sense in Malayalam even now. The drum is also “Parai” deriving its name from the function of communication. Even today all temple festivals begin with “Bheritādana”, beating the drum, where the drum beater is garlanded and worshipped by the priest. The Vedic passage says the devotee salutes him as God, and we recite it even to this day only not knowing what it says. The role of archers in ancient times was very vital (and they are mentioned with a number of other groups who supported them with bow and arrows and arrow heads). They were the mainstay of the army, men who protected the inhabitants. There were horse riders, charioteers, and reciters of Vedas and Vedantins. There were thieves, robbers roaming around in the nights and daytime too, which caused fear in the mind of the people. There is no mention of king though his presence may be inferred. There were merchants “Vanijas” but no mention of the fourfold castes. It appears that the king’s role was limited affording protection mainly to those in settled areas and by protecting border and other areas from foreign aggression. Every caste especially in woods, and forests and the roadways and water sources had enjoyed almost full freedom and yet there is no mention of disharmony amongst them, and none was considered outsider to the civilization. Each had his place in the society, and none was disrespected.
Nature as Divine: Other data furnished by this Vedic passage call for a greater in-depth study of the early Vedic society for a proper understanding of our misconceptions about the caste system which had its roots in environment and profession. The dawn of new discoveries has broken the barriers of environments and professions. Many castes are shaking off thinking and are struggling to readjust to the new situation and will soon emerge only to face new challenges. The one hope against them is to see the tremendous power present in Nature as did the ancient Vedic seers saw in the Sun and its rays, rather than assert mine is the only god who is the bestower of salvation.
16.3. Namah Śavitre When man was in the early stages of living, he lived very close to the natural environment like hills, rivers, trees, plants, flowers, birds, animals, reptiles, and human beings. The flowers, fruit bearing trees, birds, flowing rivers, water falls etc., left a lasting impression on him. The most impressive natural phenomenon that he was constantly seeing was the rising Sun, its movements and setting. Similarly, the moon also attracted him.
He found Sun was the most important power that made the plants grow, the birds to announce the arrival of dawn, and visibility that enabled the man to start on his day's work. In short, it propelled him to do daily works. It woke him from his slumber/sleep and stimulated his routines. Thus, he rightly considered Sun as the visible primordial power.
The rising Sun in the morning is coppery in color, which gradually changes into orange, then to yellow and then white. He was fascinated by its beauty and function. He began daily to observe the same and called it Savitā and adored it. So, he prayed, “Thou Savita, you stimulate my intellect so that I shall do greater things”. This prayer addressed to Savitā is called Gāyatri in the Vedas. In India and wherever Indian culture spread like Thailand, Cambodia, this prayer went and everywhere, most of the people recited the prayer Gāyatri that is the essence of Indian Religion from time immemorial.
He also realized that in the journey of Sun many things are born, grew and disappeared so he thought there is appearance, growth, and disappearance. He called the Sun by different names like Creator (Brahmā), Protector (Viṣṇu) and Dissolver (Rudra). All are different forms of one Supreme power. All these powers could not be visibly seen but the Sun could be seen by eyes and so he called the Sun itself as the supreme God “Pratyakṣa Parameśvara”.
It is the same power who is Viṣṇu, who is Śiva and who is Brahmā. All the Vedas and Upaniṣads, which are the ancient most literature of India speak of this truth that, Brahmā, Viṣṇu, Śiva and Sūrya are one and the same God.
When the clouds move in the sky they look like huge elephants. When the Sun appears, he tears open the black clouds like tearing a huge elephant. In this the Indians saw Śiva appearing as “Gaja-samhāra-mūrti”. When the Sun appears in the sky driving away darkness he looks like dancing on a huge black figure of darkness. The Indians saw in this Dance of Śiva (udvayam tamasas pari paśyanto jyotir uttamam).
16.4. Govindarājīyam on Ādityahṛdayam The Rāmāyaṇa of Valmiki has a popular commentary by one Govindarāja, who lived in the 17th Century. His comments on the famous “Ādityahṛdayam” in the Rāmāyaṇa is interesting. In all difficulties, and in dangerous paths, fear grips everyone without distinction. - Sūrya, was pleased with the stotra of Śri Rāma, looked at him with happiness, and knowing that the end of the Rākṣasa is near, having blessed Rāma, and being in the midst of celestials, told Rāma, “please hurry towards Rāvaṇa”. Here it sounds that Sūrya, descended from his own orbit, near Rāma in space, and restored the fruits of prayers.
At this stage the commentator raises a doubt. Is it not a fact that great texts have declared Viṣṇu alone is supreme among all, and that all others like Brahmā, Rudra are born out of Nārāyaṇa. Here Sūrya is declared the supreme among all! How?
Govindaraja replies “Yes indeed. But Bhagavān Bādarāyaṇa has proved in Brahma-Mīmāṁsā that though Āditya is praised as Supreme, the inner meaning of the Madhu-vidyā is Paramātmā who resides as the inner soul of (Āditya), Antaryamitvena”! In the same way, everything should be taken in this text in the sense of Āditya's inner self. That Nārāyaṇa is supreme is detailed from the beginning to the very end.
Brahmā, Īśāna, and Acyuta, emanated from Paramātmā and so it is appropriate that this chapter is not seen in some manuscripts. It has also not been commented by Piḍāri. Though from the very beginning, the supremacy of Sūrya is expounded, in fact it is intended to extol the supremacy of Nārāyaṇa. If this chapter is included in the text, Piḍāri would have counted 131 Sargas in his kāṇḍa. (He has not done so).
The commentary is named Rāmāyaṇa bhūṣaṇa - Ratnakīrti by Govindarāja who wrote it. Though Govindarāja has commented on it, he does not approve Ādityahṛdayam due to his staunch belief in Vaiṣṇavism.
At the end of the Yuddha-kāṇḍa, Govindarāja says that he belonged to Kauśika gotra, and was the son of Varadaguru (Varadācāri). He was inspired by the affection of Bhāvanācārya and was a great devotee of Saṭagōpaṉ. In the Uttara-kāṇḍa, he says that he was the follower Saṭajit a Srivatsa gotrin.
In the Bāla-kāṇḍa he states that the Ācārya Saṭagōpaṉ deserted this, (Prācārya) and Lakṣmṇas yogi (may be Rāmānuja), Yāmunācārya and others also?
We also get some information on another commentator Maheśvara-tīrtha, whose work is called Tīrthīyam. He seemed to be an Advaitin as he starts saluting the goddess as Parabrahma. He salutes Nārāyaṇa-tīrtha-desika who is said to shine as the very nectar of the worldly five. He calls himself Maheśa-tīrtha-muni obviously a Sanyasin and gives the name of his commentary as Rāmayaṇa-tatva-dīpika. He says that he is only a scribe, copying all the works and not an author of new works. It is not known whether, he is identical with Nārāyaṇa Tīrtha the well-known composer of Kṛṣṇa-līla-taraṅgiṇi.
Rāmayaṇa is said to be the full form of Gāyatri. This sloka is found in the end of the Uttara-kāṇda. Gayatri consists of 24 akṣaras, and Rāmāyaṇa consists of 24,000 slokas this is a true extension of Gāyatri hymn. Govindarāja gives different names to his commentary in each kāṇḍa. At the beginning of his commentary on the Bāla-kāṇḍa of the Rāmāyaṇa, he salutes – Saṭakōpa desika - (Nammāḻvār) who is called Prācārya pārampari, followed by Śrīmad Lakṣmaṇa yogi and Yāmuna vāstavār Nātha and others. He says that he had a vision of writing the commentary and a dream, while he was in front of Hanuman shrine, on top of the Añjanagiri (Thiruppati hill) at the entrance to the temple of Venkaṭanātha, in the midst of learned men who had come from different parts of the country. “I, write this commentary on Rāmāyaṇa, avoiding repetitive and contradictory comments, and make use of only agreeable and pleasant usage's, in words. Also, expounding interesting ideas at every step, I compile this commentary for the happiness of good people. I have also made use of all other earlier commentaries and write this Śrī Rāmāyaṇa Bhūṣaṇa, the ornament of Rāmāyaṇa. I had visited Śrī Pūrṇa Śaila eighteen times and listened to the traditional exposition of the Rāmāyaṇa from him and expound the same obtained from the Ācārya Paramparā. In some places I give the meaning of the words; in some the syntactical propriety, in some places splitting words appropriately and at places the explicit and implicit meanings and also look for references.”
This sums up his attitude to the tradition of commentary. His commentary proposes all these attempts. At the end of Uttara-kāṇḍa, he says, he was deeply learned in Vedas, śāstras, and (Vāda) debate with unassailable fame. He was a critical scholar of kāvya alaṅkāra - embelishments, nātya and in writing commentaries as well. He was pure in heart and adept in extracting the nectar from the pure lotus. He was a person of Suddha Sattva, of pure life. He wrote this commentary after deep reflection and hearing.
In the beginning of Ayodhya-kāṇḍa he says he was immersed in hearing the words uttered by the sacred mouth of Saṭāri, who was an embodiment of Sama-dharma, and having expounded in the midst of learned men with natural saralah words, I, Govindarāja, the ornament of Kauśika gotra, expound the Sāketa-kāṇḍa for the delight of the people”. It would mean that he heavily leaned on the thoughts of Saṭakopaṉ - Nammāḻvār. At the end of the kāṇḍa he says, constantly serving the lotus feet of Saṭakopa, he got all his doubts and ignorance cleared. He also says that he like a lion, averted the elephant group of all Kāthka. He employs here the word kathāka meaning, the exponents of stories called the kathā-kālakṣepa-kāras, who were quite a group in his time. He calls them elephants and that he was a lion to them. The other meaning is also explicit. Among the communicators of Rāmāyaṇa and Kāthaka stories, Kāthaka was anterior to Govindarāja in point of time. Kāthaka’s commentary Kāthaka-tīka is referred to by Nagojibhaṭṭa and others. Obviously, his commentary was very popular at the time of Govindarāja, who claims to have excelled Kāthaka by his music and he calls him one in a group that can win by music any number of Kāthakas.
In the Araṇya-kāṇḍa, he says reverence again to Saṭakopa whom he says was a Srivatsa gotrin. He calls the Rāmāyaṇa, a king - Rāja and so his commentaries are like the ornaments to the king. He has given Pitāmbara - silk garment to this king and now presents beautiful Ratna-mekhalā. At the end of Araṇya-kāṇḍa, he says there are many variations, with less or a greater number of verses in manuscripts. At the end, he again pays homage to Saṭakopa. He also says he has examined the mountain, the commentary of all other great commentators and written his own at the end.
In Sundara-kāṇḍa, he seems to refer to Saṭakopa guru almost as living. At the end, he says that he is a Kauśika gotrin, while Saṭakopa desika belonged to Vatsa gotra. At the beginning of Yuddha-kāṇḍa, he Salutes Saṭakopa called Ācārya, and the genealogy of Ācāryas, Nārada and Kusa-lava and examining the commentaries of Pūrvācāryas he writes this kāṇḍa. Here, he says that he was the son of Varadaguru, (Varadācāri) and was impelled by the advice of Bhāvanācārya, wrote this great or expansive commentary on Yuddha-kāṇḍa.
In the Uttara-kāṇḍa he says Ācārya Saṭhajit belonged to Srivatsa gotra became a greatly accomplished scholar in all the śāstras by the grace of his teacher and manifests his personality in the commentary. The concluding commentary of Govindarāja is rather flat. He concludes that Rāmāyaṇa stands for Gāyatri and says Rāmāyaṇa is a Vivaraṇa of Gāyatri. 16.5. Rudra is Sūrya We have seen earlier that Rudra and Śiva are identical in the Vedas. I have drawn attention to the dual deity called as Agnā-Viṣṇu in Vedas. The most famous passage in the Taittirīya Samhitā of Kṛṣṇa Yajur Veda is Śri Rudram. It is called Rudra - Anuvāka Praśṇa, Śrī Rudra Sūktam, and Śata-Rudrīyam. This part is recited daily by Vedic scholars, and specially taught to all students so that they may recite it daily in their life. This also is used daily in abhiṣeka, and daily pūja and all other festivals and domestic rituals. As it is an excellent meditative portion there is a preamble to it which is also recited before the Rudram. it reads like this: - अस्य श्री रुद्राध्याय प्रश्न महामन्त्रस्य, अघोर ऋषि:, अनुष्ठुप् छन्द, संकर्षणमूर्त्ति स्वरूपो योसावादित्यः परमपुरुषःप य येषः रुद्रो देवता। This passage at the beginning gives many important concepts about Rudra which was interpreted generally all these years as lightning and is terrific manifestation etc. But let us see what the ancient thinkers thought themselves. They call this as a chapter, adhyāya and a great mantra hymn Mahāmantrah. This is attributed to sage Aghora and is in the meter Anuṣtup. Then the passage says this Rudra is Sūrya - Āditya (asau ādityaḥ), who is of the form Saṁkarṣana mūrti and is Parama Puruṣa, the Supreme being. This shows that Rudra is none other than Āditya - Sūrya, who in turn he is identical with Saṁkarṣana. All these terms are synonyms.
According to this preamble, Rudra is Sūrya. This concept should be understood with reference to many passages in the same Veda which declares that Rudro vā eṣa yad Agniḥ. Which means Rudra is none other than this Agni. It is needless to say that the most powerful, most benign, and most terrific, celestial fire Agni is Sūrya. Thus, the ancient Indian seers visualized Sūrya as the primordial God, Parama Puruṣa, as Agni identical with Rudra. There are three fires recognized in Vedas and they are Sūrya (Sun), Chandra (Moon), and Agni (terrestrial) fire. Of these three there is no doubt Sūrya is the foremost and so is rightly called Parama Puruṣa.
There is an important Sūkta in the Veda, which is called Puruṣa sūkta that begins as this Supreme being has thousands of heads Sahasra Sīrṣā Puruṣa, a direct reference to innumerable rays of the Sun. Puruṣa Sūkta is also addressed to Sūrya. It is known that Sūrya is called Sūrya Nārāyaṇa.
It is also known that Puruṣa is held identical with Viṣṇu, Nārāyaṇa. Viṣṇu is said to have emanated as four Vyūhas namely Saṁkarṣaṇa, Pradyumna, Aniruddha, and Vāsudeva. According to Vaiṣṇava Āgamas, Saṁkarṣaṇa and Rudra are identical. This concept arise from Viṣṇu is also Agni, the shining and spreading power of Agni as light.
This concept is also first mentioned in the Veda itself as a dual deity Agnā-Viṣṇu in the Rudram. Thus, the preamble of the Śrī Rudram mentions that the Āditya in the form of Saṁkarṣana is Rudra. We therefore find that in Śiva temples Āditya is worshipped daily as Śiva Sūrya and in the Viṣṇu temples, he is worshipped as Sūrya Nārāyaṇa. Thus, the Śrī Rudram holds that Śiva and Viṣṇu are one inseparable entity, and they are identical with Sūrya. 16.6. Sūrya Āditya, Savitā, Sūryah, Gabhastimān, Mitrah, and one with thousand eyes, thousand footed and thousand handed are all some of the names used in Vedas to denote the Sun god. He is also recognized as the primordial visible god of the Universe – Pratyakṣa Parameśvara, all the other gods can be seen only through Knowledge. He is extolled as the soul of the world - (Sūrya Ātmā Jagatah) and is the Eye of the Universe “Cakṣuh”. Sūrya awakens all living beings from slumber and stimulates them to undertake their works as he rises. As he comes on the horizon, the cowherds see him and the women who bring waters also see him “Utainam Gopās adrisan, adrisan udahāryah”. He makes the cultivators to plough the fields as “Mitra Kristih”. The learned Brāhmaṇas, with folded hands and reciting the Vedas, welcome him for the prosperity of the worlds. The birds and animals rising up, fluttering, and singing move here and there. He is the one who removes the darkness of ignorance. He rises in the east and traverses the mid sky and sets in the the west and so he is extolled in the Vedas as the one three great steps- “Tridhoru gāyah”. By every one of his constant movements, he creates the time as minute, hour, day, night, days, weeks, months, and year (nimeṣa, nādi, sandhi, nātam, divā, tithi, vāra, nakṣatra, yoga, karaṇa, mātās, ritus, and samvatsara) and so is called the creator of Kāla. Through benevolent heat, he creates vegetation and food to grow and sustains all lives on earth and so is called the creator, and the sustainer of the Universe. At the end of eons, he dissolves the Universe by his terrific heat. Thus, he is also called Brahmā, Viṣṇu, and Śiva, Indra and other gods. The most repeated Vedic mantras, the Śata Rudrīyam (Śrī Rudram), Puruṣa Sūktam, Nārāyaṇa Sūktam and others extol him. The most ancient prayer in the world that has been recited for the past several thousand years by millions of people and continued to this day is the Vedic Gāyatrī, which is addressed to Sūrya as God Savitā, to stimulate one’s intellect, obtain critical knowledge, Jñāna. This was the prayer from Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, whole of India, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam, right across a great part of the world Sūrya is worshipped in all temples, in Śiva temples as Śiva Sūrya and in Viṣṇu temples as Sūrya Nārāyaṇa. The lotus flowers blossom as he rises so he is shown in his image with two lotuses in both his arms, is also shown standing on a chariot drawn by seven horses representing the seven days of the week in most cases. In some cases, with seven svaras Sa, Sri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Da, Ni in music, Sūrya is always shown standing on a lotus. He is said to circumambulate (pradakṣina) the mount Meru on the Himālayas, the coldest region of the earth, he is shown with leather boots on his legs and covering his chest with a golden kavaca in images in the whole of northern India and this called udichya veṣa, i.e., northern form. He combines in himself the acts of Brahmā, Viṣṇu, Śiva, and also his own manifestation. He is often shown with four heads and eight arms holding the weapons of all the four gods. In such aspect he is called Mārtāṇḍa Bhairava mostly in northern part of India, eastern part of India like Bengal, Assam, Manipur, Orissa, and across Aryāvarta, Kashmir west and Mādhyapradesh. Such images are also found as in the Cōḻa country. In Dārāsuram near Kumbakōṇam, he is shown as Mārtāṇḍa Bhairava with four heads and as Ardhanāri. His worship was so popular throughout India, monumental temples were built for him in Kashmir (Mārtāṇḍa temple), sun temple of Konaraka (Orissa), sun temple at Modhera (Gujarat, Chitragupta temple at Khajuraho (Madhyapradesh) and Suryanār temple in Tamiḻnaḍu and there are so many temples at different places.
Some of the best Mārtāṇḍa images were made in eastern India Iike Bengal, eastern Bihar, Assam. Manipur, including modern Bangladesh by the Pālā rulers. One of the most influential aspects of Hindu worship is what is known as Pañchāyatana worship, both as individual worship and temple in which, Āditya, Ambikā, Viṣṇu, Gaṇanātha and Mahēśvara. In this form of worship Āditya is worshipped with other four deities. In ancient times there are Liṅgas worshipped with four images of Brahmā, Viṣṇu, Śiva and Sūrya each on one face as caturmukhas. Such images of Liṅgas were worshipped even in Indonesia in ancient times. The worship of Sūrya as the primordial deity is called Sauram form. According to traditions, the Advaita Ācārya Śaṅkara established this form of worship along with the other five forms of worship as the Ṣanmatha sthāpanācārya.
Sūrya worship conferred all round fulfillment and victory in all undertakings. When Lord Rāma was standing in front of Rāvaṇa in the battlefield, the divine Ṛṣi Sage Agastya appeared before Rāma and adviced him to worship Sūrya. Pūjayasva vivasvantam bhāskaram bhuvaneśvaram Yena sarvān arīn vatsa samare vijayiṣyasi.
This Stotra almost appearing as another Gīta, is called “Ādityahṛdayam” (the heart of Sūrya worship) is recited daily by thousands of men and women to this day from Kāshmir to Kanyākumari. There is an ancient composition in Sanskrit by a poet Mayura kavi, consisting of one hundred verses called Sūrya śatakam. This was inscribed on stone over one thousand years at Kāñchipuram. The Mahaswāmigaḷ of Kāñchī, used to visit the Kacchapeśvara temple where the inscription is still preserved and read the inscription. The worship of Sūrya is so inseparably connected with Indian faith and worship it is impossible to speak of Hindu religion without the understanding of Sūrya.
16.7. Śata Rudrīyam The Śata Rudrīyam, popularly known as Srī Rudram, found in all the Vedas, including the Ṛg Veda, Kṛṣṇa Yajur Veda and Śukla Yajur Veda, is considered as the most important part that has influenced the Hindu thoughts and life. It is used extensively for the past four thousand years in worship, meditation, homa and recitations. Many commentaries appeared on this passage through the centuries.
It is found in the fourth kāṇḍam of the Yajur Veda and that too as its central part hṛdayam. In the centre of this passage appears the sacred Pañcākṣara, “Na-ma-śi-vā-ya” considered as the real heart of Śaivism. Among the five commentaries known, the ones of Bhaṭṭa Bhāskara, Sāyana, Viṣṇu Sūri, and Śaṅkara are available. Śrī Rudram is mentioned several times in the Veda. It is also likened to an Upaniṣad and is called Rudrōpaniṣad. A compilation of all the texts that use this Rudram in domestic and other rituals, was published in the last century under the title Śrī Rudra Samhitā. A novel method of identifying all sculptural representations of Śiva against Rudram was given by Śri C. Sivarāmamurti. Another publication I found useful was that of Śrī Aṇṇā Subrahmanya Aiyer, published by Śrī Rāmakriṣṇa Mutt, the last one being in Tamiḻ. Śrī Annā deserves to be remembered for his signal contribution. A careful study of the Śrī Rudram shows that it is the fore runner of the Upaniṣads for it deals with equality of all souls irrespective of birth, castes, or professions.
Śata Rudrīyam The Yajur veda is said to have one hundred branches, Śata Śākhas, and this Śrī Rudram is found in most of the available ones, and so it is called Śata Rudrīyam. According to another tradition, as it speaks of hundreds of manifestations of Rudras, hence called as Śata Rudrīyam. As it deals with many manifestations of Godhood, it is ideally suited for any section of the people, who can recite and achieve their prayers says Taittirīya Upaniṣad. Mode of recitation Śrī Rudram is in eleven anuvākās (hymns) and generally recited along with another passage in the same part called Camakam. It is customary to recite both in five different combinations and each recitation has its own name. The normal mode is to recite them once. The second mode is to recite eleven times Rudram, followed by eleven times Camakam; this mode is called Rudra Ēkādaśinī. Laghu Ēkādaśinī is the mode of reciting eleven times the Rudra Ēkādaśinī. Eleven Laghu Ekādasinī constitue one Mahā Rudram and Mahā Rudram, if recited for eleven times, is called Atirudram.
Namakam and Camakam The word Namaḥ i.e., “I salute”, occurs several times for each manifestation in its eleven Anuvākas, and so Rudram itself is called Namakam. In the second part of this recitation, the devotee says I have all the qualifications, and acquisitions to worship Rudra, which mentions each separately with the phrase “ca me” and so it goes by the name “Camakam”. Rudra is Sūrya and Śiva The first part of Rudram clearly shows that it addresses Sūrya, its emergence from the horizon in the morning, its impact on earth etc. The Veda calls Rudra as Agṇi “Rudro vā ēṣa yad Agṇiḥ”. The Vedas also says that Chandra, and Agṇi the terrestrial fires that derive their power from Sūrya who is called the foremost entity. Rudra is the visual Supernatural power on earth. Rudra is Śiva in the Vedas. “Śivo nah sumanā bhava”. The Sun's rays are called the arrows and as he throws the rays on earth, he is called the weilder of a bow, Dhanvin. Several Rudras As the Sun's rays are innumerable and reach through the space, through trees, through hills etc., they are called Rudras in hundreds, or thousand footed Sūrya, (sahasra pād, sahasra akṣa, and sahasra śīrṣa, or thousand eyes or thousand hands). So, they are said to be on earth, intermediate space, and in heaven. (ye prithivyām, ye antarikṣe, ye divi). Śiva, Harihara and Ardhanāri Rudra Sūrya's rays have two inherent powers, one is the terrific heat and the other spreading benign light, the former being called Ghorā and the other Śivā (the latter in feminine gender standing for auspiciousness.) The benign light is also called Viṣṇu and so the Śrī Rudram ends with the salutation Om namo Bhagavate Rudrāya Viṣṇavē Mṛtyur me pāhi), “Oh lord Rudra-Viṣṇu please protect me from death”, that is Hari-Hara. As the benign part of him is called “Śivā”, he is also called Śiva and Śivā, and Ardhanāri. 16.8. Śrīmad Bhāgavatam Among the well-known puraṇas, Śrī Bhāgavatam is the most beautiful and popular purāṇa, especially its 10th Skandha in which the life of Kṛṣṇa is dealt with under the name “Śrī Kṛṣṇa caritam”. The tenth skandha is divided into two parts as the first and the second parts. It probably formed the core of the main purāṇa which gradually got bigger. As it is, it consists of 12 skandhas, with its end saying that it was told by Viṣṇu to Brahmā while he was seated on the lotus. Arising from the nabhi of Viṣṇu, Brahma was worried about the world. It was also called “Hari-līla-katha”. It is claimed as the essence of all the Vedāntas, (Sarva Vedānta Sāra) dealing mainly with the unity of individual soul and Supreme Brahman thus is an Advaita text (Vāstu advaitam) and culminates in Brahmātma-aikyam, as per the text itself.
It has short notes (Tika) on the whole text by one Śrīdhara, which goes by the name Bhāvārtha dipika – i.e “Light on the meaning of consciousness. The commentator explains this “Hari-līla-katha vratam i.e., as samūhah, an anthology of sports of Hari. It further claimes it has 18,000 slokas, Aṣtadasa sahasram.
At the beginning of the text there is a portion called “Bhāgavata purāṇa mahātmyam” that gives a captivating allegorical story in which the concept of Bhakti (devotion) is portrayed as a young lady born in the Dramida country who went to Karnataka country, and then to Mahārāshtra and Gujarat where she became emaciated and weak and finally, she reached Brindāvan, where she got rejuvenated and became again an attractive young woman and so on. While this imaginary story is certainly attractive and possibly shows some historical movements of Tamiḻ Bhakti, it does not seem to be an original part of the purāṇa and clearly a later addition. The reason is not far to seek. While the commentary that exists in full, from the first skandha to the very end, it is not there in the Mahātmya part. Secondly, the first skandha begins altogether as a new text and hence it is clear the Mahātmya part is post Tika addition (commentary). It also suggests that this part dealing with the bhakti of Tamiḻnāḍu actually was added in Tamiḻnāḍu and is the source of the Southern recession of the Bhāgavatam.
As the text is very popular there had been many scholarly studies on this text and its dating. The Web site of Bhakti Vedanta prabhupada has an important discussion on this subject and readers are invited to visit this site for details of important study. It may be seen that till recent times it was considered a 13th Century text and now between 9th and 13th cent.
An important inscription coming from the Viṣṇu temple of Varadarāja at Kāñcīpuram throws valuable light on this subject and its role in the history of Śrīvaiṣṇava theology. The inscription is found on a rock north of the main temple of Varadarāja and is in Tamiḻ dated in the reign of the Cōḻa ruler Vikrama Cōḻa in his 13th year corresponding to 1131 CE. Thus, the record is firmly dated. It was copied in the year 1919 by the Government Epigraphist who published a small summary in their annual report in English. A recent publication gives the full text for the first time nearly one hundred years after it being copied. Both these publications missed the importance of the inscription. The inscription begins with praṣasti of Vikrama Cōḻa and records that a high official of the king named Vikrama Cōḻa Brahmādhirāja also known as Ēkambaraṉ Āḷudaiyaṉ of Kāñchīkkuri, purchased land from several persons, amounting to 2000 kuḻis for 100 kaḻañju of gold he deposited in the treasury of Varadarāja (Āḻvār Paṇḍāram) and deposited further 16 kaḻañju of gold for meeting the expense of taxes on the land and on the cultivators of the land and created a service Kāṇi, and appointed one Mēvēndavelāṉ and his descendants to look after the cultivation of the land in perpetuity as a service tenure. From the upper proceeds of the land, Brahmādhirājar arranged a service to himself of reciting Śrī Bhāgavatam in the presence of Lord Varadarāja in the month of Puraṭṭāsi on Ekādasi day and arrange for a special thirumañjanam, oblation to Varadarāja and offer a special food with rice, sugar, vegetables, ghee, and pepper etc.
This endowment was for reciting Śrī Bhāgavatam in the presence of Varadarāja, from 1131 CE in the time of the Cōḻas. As it was not mentioned as a new composition, this record gives a terminal date for Bhāgavatam which should now be placed before 1100 CE. And so, the date so far announced as 13th century is no more valid. It also establishes a connection between Bhāgvatam and Tamiḻnāḍu and that may explain the Māhatmya part at the beginning, referring to bhakti as born in Dramiladeśa has now some basis. Also, the recitation of the Bhāgavata in the Viṣṇu temples in Cōḻa times is established.
Another significant point is that if the date of Śrī Vaiṣṇava saint Rāmānuja is accepted that he was born in 1017 and lived until his 120th year in 1137 CE, then it would mean that Bhāgavatam recitation in the Varadarāja temple of Kāñchī was prevalent during his own lifetime. This raises some questions of Vaiṣṇava theology in his time for as mentioned earlier this work Bhāgavatam was considered an Advaitic doctrine and Rāmānuja school do not contribute to the recognition of this text, though it is mainly a work on Vāsudeva Kṛṣṇa. There is a tradition among the Vaiṣṇava of Tamiḻnāḍu that the recitation of Bhāgavatam in Viṣṇu temples is not acceptable.
The Bhāgavatam itself says that any who recites or listens to its recitation purifies his self. And if he makes a special gift in the month of Puraṭṭāsi, he acquires spiritual merit. It also ends by saying that the main message is total identity of Individual soul with Parabrahmam, “Brahmātmaikya” and hence is a text on Advaita. The present-day Vaiṣṇavites do not accept the recitation of this Bhāgavatam in Viṣṇu temples, though they celebrate very insignificant purāṇas such as the Kaisiki purāṇa to be recited annualy. Further study on the impact of this tradition on Viṣṇu temples is a desideratum. 16.9. Role of Sanskrit in Indian culture The present controversy about Sanskrit has brought to focus some basic misunderstanding about the place of Sanskrit in Indian culture. One report said that the CBSE circular directing the schools to celebrate Sanskrit week claimed Sanskrit as the mother of all Indian languages. This is patently a wrong claim because the very word Samskrit means a refined language, or more correctly poetic language. It is exactly rendered in Tamiḻ as "Ceyyuḷ” and the spoken northern language called generally “Prākṛt” is called in Tamiḻ “Vaḻakku”. Sometime the spoken Tamiḻ is called "Iyar col” meaning natural language. From the earliest recorded history of the Tamiḻs, four kinds of languages were considered part of Tamiḻ culture namely, Iyar-col, (natural language), Ticai-col (regional language used in the outer limits of the Tamiḻ land), and “Tiri-col”, colloquial Tamiḻ, and “Vada-col” northern language, which are prescribed by Tolkāppiyam the earliest Tamiḻ grammar. In fact, the ancient Tamiḻs were prudent enough to suggest the use of foreign languages as well.
Sanskrit is the name of the language mainly used for the language of northern part of India as refined by that extraordinary world class grammarian, Pāṇini 6th – 5th century BCE. The earlier language or what we may call the earliest language of India is the Vedic language, which existed at least 2500 years before Pāṇini. Though it had many archaic formats and vocabularies, it already had over 60 percent of roots of nouns and verbs which were gradually evolving into simplified structured language. Indian culture in different regions of India and adjacent regions were coming closer together due to increased transport and other reasons, extraordinary explosion of knowledge system was taking place in different regions of India as a result of the Vedic culture. The layouts of different Vedic altars for sacrifices like eagle shaped altars or wheel or triangular layouts ushered in the development of mathematical calculations and trigonometry, when the science reached its heights. Thus, Gaṇita became a part of Vedic science. As the Vedic sacrifices were mainly related to solar and lunar occurrences and their close relationship with the planetary positions, the Science of astronomy became a part the Vedic tradition. Also, this was the time when science of medicine -the Āyurveda has been formulated on the path of absolute science. One needs to only go through the ancient texts of Ayurveda to properly appreciate the amazing scientific findings. There are other fields also where progress was being made. Different regions with different languages did exist but there was one limitation. Sanskrit is grammatically structured poetic language, but the spoken language continued to be Prākṛt.
There is often some confusion between spoken popular language and grammatically refined poetic language. Grammatically refined poetic language like Sanskrit was never meant to be a spoken language. In the same way grammatically perfect ceyyuḷ in Tamiḻ is not spoken by people and was not meant to be a spoken language.
The colloquial nature of the regional language words existing in vast space, distorted or twisted pronunciations led to misleading understandings. Similarly, the spoken words underwent changes through times. There was a need to preserve these scientific benefits to people spread over in vast space and time which could retain the form and meaning unchanged. Pāṇini, the brilliant thinker refined the existing language with his grammar with precision, that maintained the structure and meanings throughout India. As a mode of preservation of these ideas was by oral transmission, best preserved by committing to memory in rhythmic poetic forms, all these texts were written in poetic Sanskrit form. Even Buddhists and Jains who wrote initially their works in Prākṛt, soon found Sanskrit better suited for their works and from the beginning of the current era adopted Sanskrit for the past 2000 years. This movement was not limited to only the few subjects, but in all fields of human activities like architecture, sculpture, painting, jewelry, music, dance, religion philosophy, administration, economics etc., Sanskrit was used. It is absolutely unscientific to say that it was the language of one section of the society, 70 percent of the population like doctors, musicians, dancers’ craftsmen, and others, used Sanskrit in their birth rites, death ceremonies and other domestic rituals. Excellent Sanskrit texts, describing temple buildings. etc., by Jaina munis are available such as the Pratiṣṭha tilaka. Hundreds of Sanskrit texts by Buddhists are known.
Another important field of everlasting value of Sanskrit was the great upaniṣadic literature which universalized all human thoughts through Ātma-vidyā. Some of the greatest thinkers of recent times like Vivekananda, Mahariṣi Aurobinda ghose, Ravindranath Tagore, S. Radhakriṣṇan, Subrahmaṇya Bharati Mahā Swāmigaḷ and Pujyaśrī Dayānanda Saraswati Swāmigaḷ and others have shown the value of these works to world culture. Not only the Oriental scholars, but great Occidental scholars like Sir William jones, Max Mueller, E. Holmes, and a galaxy of others have repeatedly pointed out the value of Upaniṣadic texts. The singular message of the Upaniṣads was “self-denial” -Tyāga, and Ahimsa. One should not forget that the Great Gandhi Mahatma, the father of the nation, was the creation of this tradition.
It is precisely the reason why this culture spread to whole of Asia, like China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand Indonesia, and other countries. Wherever it went with Buddhism, it was always an integrated culture with all the Hindu Gods like Vināyaka, Kumāra, Śiva, Viṣṇu, Durgā and others along with Buddha. E. Holmes wrote in his introduction to Indian philosophy by Radhakriṣṇan, Buddha' s mission in life was to propagate the Upaniṣadic ideology and its discipline, unfortunately distorted by some half-baked writers. Wherever it went, the Upaniṣads inspired the regional languages to flower into amazing heights. Everywhere Sanskrit was used along with the language of the respective country.
In Tamiḻnāḍu alone the history was in no way different. From the very beginning of known history of the Tamiḻs, Sanskrit existed side by side. From the first century CE (AD) when Sanskrit came to be in the midst of the Tamiḻ, an outburst of classical Tamiḻ works like the Saṅgam works came into existence. Over 2800 poems were written in the first two centuries of CE that demonstrates in unmistakable terms, Sanskrit remained integrated with Tamiḻ during that period. The succeeding centuries from the fourth to 9th century witnessed over 20,000 delightful verses with full of emotion and devotion by the Śaiva Nāyanmars and Vaiṣṇava Aḻwars, an unparalleled output not seen in any other part of India, and with Sanskrit inseparably amalgamated in them. Noble men like Dharmapuram Swāmikaḷ, Thiruppānantal Swāmikaḷ and the Thiruvāvadutuṟai mutt have in recent times pointed out the efficacy of these two languages as inseparable in Tamiḻ ethos. As we need more rationalist scholars to go to different states of India, to tell the achievements of the Tamiḻ, it is necessary to train Tamiḻ scholars with functional Sanskrit so that their work will be effective. Tamiḻ is such a vibrant language with built in strength that it can assimilate any other incoming ideas without losing its vitality and individuality. 16.10. Aśoka's Dharma Aśoka was the greatest monarch who has left all thoughts and kingship discipline in his edicts. He calls his social discipline as Dharma. He does not say that he was enforcing Buddha Dharma but the ancient Dharma. He declared repeatedly that the kings in ancient times desired that that his people should perform and promote Dharma. The people did not make any progress. So, he says he thought that he will make proclamation on Dharma and have insructions given to them. He appointed dharma-mahāmātras to propagate and instruct his people.
He says that he made them engaged in various activities from officials to ascetics and house holders, and to all religious sects like Buddhist assembly. Some of them were occupied with the Brāhmaṇas, the Ājīvakas and Nirgranthas and others.
“I seek that the practice of Dharma, consisting of compassion, liberty, reality, truthfulness, purity, gentleness, and goodness ss may grow. They will also develop further respect and obedience, to parents and elders, courtesy to the aged and Brāhmaṇas, and the Śrāmaṇas, to the poor, to the distressed and even to slaves and servants and person following this Dharma, will attain happiness in this world, and in the next”.
16.11. Bilingual orders in Tamiḻnāḍu Language of administration was by lingual in Tamiḻ indisputably in the Pallava, Cōḻa and Pāṇḍya regions. The first part was in Sanskrit which generally was brief, while the second part was in Tamiḻ which was more detailed. The Sanskrit part was devoted generally to give the genealogy of the kings and in two or three sentences gave the gift detail. But the Tamiḻ part would detail the date, the revenue division and the boundaries of the land transactions, the extent of land, the nature of irrigation. The ownership, the taxation, the quantum of yield, the royal dues, the village local dues, the officials supervising the execution of the duties. They are accurate written legal, documents which is designed to scrutiny of judicial process. There are several thousand such records with the Sanskrit part at village level, but they seem to have preserved legal terminology in Sanskrit as available in Dharma Śāstras. The same terms were used and their Tamiḻ rendering were also freely employed. Spiritually, they may sound as in Manipravāḷa language that is mixed language. There are many royal orders in two languages not only in copper plate records, but also, in stone records.
Some records which were issued in borders of two ruling monarchs, were created in both languages almost like verbatim translations from Sanskrit to Tamiḻ furnishing exact equivalents of Sanskrit words in Tamiḻ, an excellent practice of getting over conflict of linguistic bias.
We have an excellent example of such a record coming from Kīranur in Naṉṉilam talk of Tañjāvūr district. This was a direct order of Rājarāja the great in his 7th regnal year, 992 C.E. Both the parts are exact translation and are in administrative language, almost word to word translation of the administrative order.
स्वस्ति स्री राजराज केसरिवर्म्मन् सम्वत् सप्तमे श्रीमन्नाग्रहार जनपद कीराग्रहारग्रामे श्रीमन् शिवपुरे शम्भुदेवस्य कार्यकर्त्रा शकरदेवनामाख्य अरुमोऴिपल्लवराज विजञ्यापनेन | श्री राजराजन्यनाम राजेन्द्रसिम्ह राजराजानुग्रह प्रसाद महानियोगेन लब्धालब्ध मुख्य विशेष सुनिश्चित प्रमाण श्रीमुखाञया देवकार्यनिरीण श्रीमाठापत्य कर्तव्य आदित्यसूनुना विमलशिव नामाख्य अष्ठा चत्वारिम्सत् सहश्र भट्ठाराख्य आर्य पण्डितेन अत्र शिवपुरेशम््भुदेवस्य कार्य सकल आराधनार्थम् पृथ्वी निबनधविधान कृत सर्व्व शासनम् वक्ष्ये. கோவிஜய ஶ்ரீ ராஜராஜகேசரிவர்மர்க்கு யாண்டு எவது திருவழுந்தூர் நாட்டுக் கீரனூர் சிவபுரம் உடைய மஹாதேவர்காச்யபனு….. நாரணன்.. (சங்கர) தேவனான அருமொழிப் பல்லரையன் விண்ணப்பத்தால் பெற்று மடமுடைய ஆதித்தன் நிமலശിவனான நாற்பத் தெண்ணாயிர படாரன் உள்ளிட்ட தேவகன்மிகள் உள்ளிருந்து §ர்வ ராஜாக்கள் வரியில் உள்ளூர்கள் இறையிலி தேவ தானம் நிலம் பன்னிரு வேலியும் இத்தெவர்க்கு முன்னுள்ள நிபந்தங்களுக்கு चन्द्रादित्यवत् निबन्धम् செய்த பரிசாவது. 16.12. Mānaviranpaṭṭi record of Pāṇḍya Varaguṇa In the Pāṇḍya region, Varaguṇa, the second who ruled in the latter half of 9th cent, had made several gifts to temples. These were entrusted in the hands of local Assemblies with the stipulation that they should pay regularly to the temples, prescribed quantity of paddy and other requirements for daily offerings to the Subrahmanya of the Thiruccendur and also double the quantity on three festive days namly thiruvādirai in the month of Mārkaḻi, Makha sukla day in the month of Māsi, and Visākha day in the month of Vaikāsi. For this purpose, the King Varaguṇa who also had the title Māraṉ cadaiyaṉ presented in the hands of his commander who divided the money and entrusted the same in the hands of a number of village Assemblies. These assemblies were directed to pay in lieu of interest, prescribed quantity of paddy and cash to the temple. Among the villages, 12 were Brahmadēya assemblies, three were Ūrs and one was a nagara (merchant guild), three Ūrs were peasant villages and the rest were Brāhmin colonies. It may be seen that the money was distributed among Ūr, Nagaram and Sabhās. The Brāhmin assemblies were existing before the 9th century in that region and were called Maṅgalam may be noted some were also called by their natural names like Kuricchi etc., but not as Caturvedi-maṅgalam. At least one name “Kaduṅkō-maṅgalam” might go back to 6th century for the well attested historical Pāṇḍya was Kaduṅkōn whose name this assembly bears. This epigraph illustrates the Brāhmin colonies were not the only recipient of gifts and exemptions, but also have served virtually as dependable banks in ancient times receiving endowment trusts to pay regular interest to temple as an institution.
The following Brāhmin settlements near Thiruccendur are recorded:
