தமிழர் சமயம்

SĀRĪRAKA MĪMĀṀSA OF ŚAṄKARA IN TEMPLES

14.1. Śaṅkara Bāṣya in Cōḻa Temple
The Kailasanātha temple at Cōḻa Mahādevī village situated enroute from Trichy to Tañjāvūr was built by Rājarāja Cōḻa around 1010 CE. There was also a Viṣṇu temple named “Thirumāl iruncōlai ninṟāṉ”, probably built of bricks. This small village with medium sized temple played a historic role in the history of Vedānta and the role of the Hindu temples.

This study will focus on the temple, the images, an important inscription on the wall of this temple, its relation to the images, the historical background, the story of an image on the wall, the image of Dakṣiṇāmūrti, the Naṭarāja and other relevant factors.

The walls of the temple carry images of Gaṇēśa, Dakṣiṇāmūrti, Viṣṇu, Brahmā, and Durgā as found in other temples of this region. In addition, it has a Bhikṣāṭaṇa image accompanied by a Ṛṣi patni.

There is also a miniature bas relief of Naṭarāja on the toraṇa. There is a Cōḻa inscription on the wall by the side of the Bhikṣāṭaṇa image in Tamiḻ and Grantha script. It mentions that the assembly of this village met in temple of Viṣṇu and gifted a land for expounding a particular Śāstra regularly and the land was to be given to the exponent.

The name of the Śāstra is given “Bhagavad pādīyam Sārīraka-Mīmāṁsa-Bhāṣya” on which one Chidānanda Bhaṭārar wrote a commentary called Pradīpam also known as Vārtikam. This text was to be regularly expounded in the village by a competent Scholar.

The name Bhagavadpādīyam Sārīraka-Mīmāṁsa-Bhāṣhya indicates that it is a commentary on the Brahma-Sūtras, by Śrī Ācārya Śaṅkara Bhagavadpādāḷ, the exponent of Advaita Vedānta.
This is the earliest reference in epigraph to Śaṅkarā's bhāṣya and this particular commentary of Chidānanda.
The location of this inscription near the Bhikṣāṭaṇa and riṣi patni images is equally important.
The gift was made in the reign of the Cōḻa emperor, Vīra Rājēndra Cōḻa, the son of the great Rājēndra, and grandson of Rājarāja Cōḻa.
From the time of Rājarāja there was a tremendous upsurge in Vedic studies in Tamiḻnāḍu that is from about 1000 CE to 1250 CE. Many Vedic villages were established, with leading scholars of Vedas appointed as teachers by the Cōḻa rulers themselves.
Several thousand Vedic Brāhmaṇas were settled in these villages. Several hundred students were taught many subjects including the Vedas, Mīmāṁsā, Vyākaraṇa, Kalpa, the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata. The names of most of these scholars are known. Some of them had even the name Veda Vyāsa.
This temple should be viewed against this background. This king Vīra Rājēndra mentions in his own royal record, that he settled forty thousand Vedic Brāhmaṇas in Tamiḻnāḍu, in Cōḻa-maṇḍalam, Pāṇḍya-maṇḍalam, Tondai-maṇḍalam etc.
The study of Vedānta was at its height at that time. While these are at the subtle philosophical level, we have many concrete representations in history to understand this movement.
The temple at the village Cōḻa-mahādevi is an east facing temple with sculptures portrayed on its walls. The first image on the first koṣṭha is in the middle of the south wall of the front maṇḍapa, a fine image of Bhikṣāṭaṇa Śiva, nude, in the pose of moving around, four armed, wielding a damaruka in the upper right hand and the front right hand extended feeding a little Mṛga which is jumping up. The rear left hand holds a long handle held across the head behind with a cāmara hanging behind while the front left hand holds a globular bowl, the bhikṣā-pātra. A snake is seen coiling around his waist with its hood spread to the left. There is also a snake twisted going around the body as upavīta the god is shown with jātāmakuṭa. The whole figure is beautifully portrayed with attractive bends and flowing limbs. The face is charming with eyes treated delicately, the right calm and the left with captivating look, recalling the enchanting eyes of Umā Haimavati. The artist certainly has suggested the Ardhanāri aspect.

Above this niche is a Makara toraṇa arch figuring a Naṭarāja image inside the arch. To the left of Bhikṣāṭaṇa niche is another niche housing a Ṛṣi Patni standing with a ladle in her right hand and the left hanging down. Her lower garment extends from her waist down to her ankle showing she is well clothed. She is shown almost equal to the height of Bhikṣāṭaṇa, facing him these two sculptures are a pair is suggested by the two niches provided side by side. Bhikṣāṭaṇa, Naṭarāja in the toraṇa arch and the Ṛṣi Patni attract immediately the sight of the onlooker first, as he starts circumambulating the temple. The south wall of the front mandapa is the first that one meets on his circumambulation. Usually, an image of Ganēśa will be found in this location. Gaṇēśa is seen in this temple to the right of Bhikṣāṭaṇa seated in a niche which is an indication that this placement of sculptures is reflective of an importance to the Bhikṣāṭaṇa form, even during the planning stage itself. Thus, Gaṇēśa now occupies a position between Bhikṣāṭaṇa and Dakṣiṇāmūrti. Similar portrayal of Bhikṣāṭaṇa first, followed by Ganēśa and then Dakṣiṇāmūrti, is seen in northern part of Tamiḻnāḍu at Nattam Paramēśvara-maṅgalam, near Mamallapuram. This temple was also built in the time of Rājarāja Cōḻa indicating that this philosophy was uppermost in Śiva temples at that point of time.

After Gaṇēśa, the south wall contains the main niche on the garbhagraha, facing south, with an image of Dakṣiṇāmūrti, the main body of which is unfortunately worn out. However it is the same form found in most of other Śiva temples, depicting him seated beneath a banyan tree, with his right front arm in vyākhyāna pose, the left on his knees, and the rear pair holding an akṣamāla and fire. On either side of his foot two bearded sages seated on each side, listening to Śiva expounding the subtle meaning of the Vedas. The Agamic tradition speak of four sages, Kauśika, Kāśyapa, Gautama and Bhāradvāja as the progenitors of the Saivācārya families; the Vedic tradition however holds they represent Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanatkumāra and Sanatsujāta, the Vedic Ṛṣis. I will be showing presently they represent the Sages of the Vedic tradition. We will discuss the significance of this Dakṣiṇāmūrti in the sequence.

The niche at the back represents Viṣṇu with four arms with Saṅkha, Cakra, Abhaya and Kaṭi hastas. The toraṇa above depicts the scene of Kṛṣṇa as a boy stealing butter from a pot, with a number of pots placed one over the other for churning butter. Behind is shown a female figure, a cowherdess, probably Yasoda with a milk pot.

On the northern side stands Brahmā in a niche with his three visible heads, standing with Akṣamāla and Kamaṇḍalu in the rear arms while the front is held in Abhaya and Kaṭi.

The north niche of the front mandapa enshrines Durgā with four hands holding Sankha and Chakra in the rear and the front with abhaya and kati poses. She stands on the head of a wild buffalo which has long horns.

Excluding the Bhikṣāṭaṇa group, the images of Gaṇēśa, Dakṣiṇāmūrti, Viṣṇu, Brahmā, and Durgā are in the places found in other temples. Therefore, it is evident this unique feature of this temple is based on a philosophy rooted in the concept of Bhikṣāṭaṇa. As this temple was built in the time of Rājarāja I, the philosophy deserves understanding.
व्यासाश्चैवं मुनिश्रेष्ठा: द्वापरे द्वापरेयुगे योगेश्वरा: सनकश्च सनन्दश्च प्रभुर्यश्च सनातन: ऋभु: सनत्कुमारश्च सुधामविरजस्तथा।। विमला: ब्रम्हभूयिष्ठा: ज्ञानयोगपरायणा: । एचे पाशुपता: सिद्धा: भस्मोदधूलितविग्रहा: ।। देवादय: पिशाचान्ता: पशव: परिकी र्तता: । तेषां पतित्वात्भव: पशुपति: स्मृत: ।। तेनप्रणीतोसुद्रेण पशूनांपतिना द्विजा: । योग: पाशुपतोज्ञ्य: पारावार विभूतये।। योगशब्देननिर्वाणं महेशंपदंउच्यते। तस्यहेतुं ऋषेर्ज्ञानं ज्ञानंतस्यप्रसादत:।। ज्ञानेन निर्दहेत्पापं निरुद्ध्यविष यान्सदा। निरुद्ध इन्द्रियवृत्ते: तुयेगसिद्धि: भविष्यति।। सर्वार्थज्ञान निष्पत्ति: आत्मन: योगउच्यते। योगोनिरोध: वृत्तेषु चित्तस्य द्विजसत्तमा: ।। साधना: अष्ठताचास्य कथितानि इह सिद्धये।
The distribution of images outer wall of the south side in the Great temple of Tañjāvūr built by Rājarāja also deserves attention. The first image on the south niche in Tañjāvūr is Bhikṣāṭaṇa and the last one is Naṭarāja. The middle one found in the interior is called Rudra or Agora. At the ground level but all the upper tiers in the same side of the temple carry the image of Dakṣiṇāmūrti. The south is dedicated to these three images. At the end of the south wall the niche carries an image Ānanda Tāṇḍava Naṭarāja facing the south. The location of this image is the same in the Gaṅgai-koṇḍa-chōḻapuram temple built by Rājēndra his son.
This shows that Naṭarāja facing south is closely associated with Dakṣiṇāmūrti. Beneath Dakṣiṇāmūrti, we always find four sages two on each side listening to the exposition Dharma by Śiva so much, so he is called “Aram uraitta Bhaṭṭan”. Aram means Dharma and Bhaṭṭa is an exponent of Śāstra. In most cases the sages bearded are old while the Śiva Dakṣiṇāmūrti is shown young, which gave rise to the famous Sanskrit verse, “vriddhā siṣyās gurur yuvā”, while the teacher was young, the students were old. It symbolizes the eternally vibrant Vedic messages. The teacher is said to be teaching through silence the truth of the Vedas with the chin mudra and obviously the students were the sages of the Dārukāvana forests. Evidently, there the sages should be considered Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanat Kumāra and Sanatsujāta. There is another version I have already mentioned. Whatever the case may be the teaching of Dakṣiṇāmūrti is Vedic in nature. We have seen that the Supreme knowledge of the Vedas are enshrined in the Vedānta and the knowledge of Vedānta is Ātma Jñāna. The Upaniṣad tell us that the Ātma Jñāna is shrouded in ignorance or avidyā.

According to Puraṇic legends when Śiva married Umā on the Himalayas all the Devas and other beings congregated there. Due to the weight of this congreagtion in the north, there was a fear that the world might tilt down. Śiva sent Agastya to the south to balance the world and granted his wish that he would be able to see the marriage celebrations from the south. Thus, Agastya became the god of the South.

It is important to note that a number of Āgama and Silpa texts include Agastya as one of the sages who was included among the Ṛṣis who listened to Dakṣiṇāmūrti's exposition of Dharma. Thus, the role of Agastya as an important sage in the Śaiva pantheon. His presence in the south deva koṣṭha of Śiva temples in line with Dakṣiṇāmūrti in temples show that he is now identified with Vedantin.

All these point to the strong Vedic tradition connected with the temple culture. We have noted that the presence of Bhikṣāṭaṇa in most Śiva temples points to the establishment of nivṛitti mārga mentioned Liṅgapurāṇa. Evidently, Śaivism and Advaita Vedānta were closely connected in the early stage that is the case up to the twelfth century. सर्गप्रतिष्ठासंहार लीलार्थं लिंगरूपिणम् शब्दब्रम्हतनुं साक्षात्शब्दब्रम्हप्रकाशकम्। वर्णावयवम्अव्यक्तलक्षणंबहुधास्थितम् ।। अकारउकारमकारं स्थूलं सूक्ष्मम्परात्परम् । ओंकाररूपं ऋक्वक्त्रं सामजिह्वा समन्वितम्।। यजुर्वोदमहाग्रीवं अथर्वह्रुदयंविभुम्। अलिंग: लिंगमूलंतु अव्यक्तं लिंगं उच्यते अलिंग: शिवइत्युक्त: लिंगंशैवंइतिस्मृतम्।। अगुणंध्रुवं अक्षय्यम्अलिंगंशिवलक्षणम् ।। जलबुद्बुदवत् तस्मात्अवतीर्ण: पितामह: । सएवभगवान्रुद्र: विष्णु: विश्वगतोप्रभु: ।। विपर्ययज्ञानमितिभ्रान्तिज्ञानंउच्यते। अनात्मनिआत्मविज्ञानंअज्ञानात्तस्यसन्निघौ दु:खं आध्यात्मिकंप्रोक्तम्तथावैवआधिभौतिकम्।। धूर्जटि: परमेशानोभगवान्नीललोहित: प्रवृत्तिलक्षणंज्ञातुंदारुवनौकसाम् परीक्षार्थंजगन्नाथ: श्रद्धयाक्रीडयाचस: ।। निवृत्तिलक्षणज्ञानप्रतिष्ठार्थं च शंकर: । देवदारुवनस्थानांप्रवृत्तिज्ञानचेतसाम् ।। विकृतंरूपंआस्थायदिक्वासा: विषमेक्षण: । मुग्धोद्विहस्त: कृष्णांगोदेवदारुवनंययौ।। मन्दस्मितंचभगवान्स्त्रीणांमनसिजोद्भवम्। भ्रूविक्रमंचगानंच चकारअतिसुन्दर: ।। संप्रेक्ष्यनाीवृन्दंवैमुहुर्मुहु: अनंगहा। अनंगवृदधिंअकरोत्अतीवमधुराकृति: ।। वन्देपुरुषद्रुष्ठ्वविकृतंतंनीललोहितम्। स्त्रिय: पतिवृतास्चापितमेवअन्वयु: आदरात्।। दृष्ठ्वाश्रुत्वाभव: तासांचेष्ठावाक्यानिचाव्यय: । शुभंवाचअशुभंवापि नोक्तवान्परमेश्वर: ।। लिङ्गपुराणम् - पूर्वभागः/अध्यायः

The earliest sculptural portrayal of Bhikṣāṭaṇa on the southern wall of the sanctum is the Pallava temple of Kailasanāth at Kāñcīpuram 700 CE. It is a lovely sculpture surrounded by Ṛṣipatnis. Above the sculpture in what corresponds to Makara Toraṇa, there is an image Śiva Tāṇḍava depicting the samhāra form. Thus, the association of Naṭeśa with Bhikṣāṭaṇa is established as early as the Pallava age. Importantly a lovely image of Dakṣiṇāmūrti is seen on the same southern side. He is seen seated beneath a Banyan tree and in a forest depicted with birds and animals. Beneath his feet on either side are two seated figures listening to his exposition of dharma. Two them are shown as bearded sages and two youngsters. obviously, they are the Vedic Ṛṣis, Sanandana, Sanātana, Sanatsujāta and Sanatkumāra as two are shown young which means that the panel is based on Vedic concepts.
Further the southern wall carries an attractive dance of Śiva with Pārvati witnessing the dance.
There is also another important image in the Kailasanātha temple. It represents sage Agastya in a sub shrine of the prākāra on the south side. Agastya is portrayed virtually as a God on par with other manifestations of Śiva. The figure is placed opposite to Bhikṣāṭaṇa on the wall of the main sanctum.

It must have a theological significance. This tradition continues until 12th century. It is known that Agastya is one of the most ancient Vedic sages with many hymns attributed to him. He is also associated with the south as one who migrated to the south with a number of ruling chieftains and colonized the Tamiḻ land and taught Tamiḻ and Sanskrit to the Tamiḻ kings. The combination of Naṭēśa, Dakṣiṇāmūrti and Bhikṣāṭaṇa on the same south wall of the main tower is significantly an iconographic program based on a philosophy.

The temple superstructure of Cōḻa-Mahādevī may be brick and mortar, while its main body at the ground level is stone. The Āgamas are ritual treatises that deal with temple rituals and festivals. But it is still the Vedas and Vedāntas that remained the dominant ethos of the temple culture. The temples were maintained by great eminent Vedic Ācāryas through their Sabhās. There was the school of Śaivas called the Pāśupata not only in all parts of India but also the whole of Southeast Asia. The Pāsupata system is essentially a Vedic system. The earliest Purāṇa of this system is the Liṅgapurāṇa. The first few chapters of the Purāṇa gives the foundation of Śaiva philosophy totally as Vedantic Advaita philosophy. Only the terminology is different, but the ultimate is the same.

That is the message of this temple and its sculpture, or I may say it is the fundamental essence of Indian systems.

That is symbolised by the Bhikṣāṭaṇa image which points to the Dakṣiṇāmūrti image. Dakṣiṇāmūrti teaches the Aram that is Dharma which leads on to Jñāna which in turn takes us to Vairāgya and finally to Aiṣvarya, called the four foundations of Indian temples. It culminates in what is called Ānanda or the fruits of Jñāna which is symbolised by the image of Naṭarāja. So, Naṭarāja is shown in this temple above the Bhikṣāṭaṇa. According to Liṅgapurāna, Bhikṣāṭaṇa, after examining the Pravṛittimārga, establishes Nivṛittimārga. That is Ātma jñāna. What one sees in temple is the Ātma jyoti.
14.2. Ātma-jñāna-yoga of Śaṅkara
The Āpastamba dharma-sūtra has two ancient commentaries, one by Ādi Śaṅkarācārya, the exponent of Advaita Vedānta and the second by Haradattācārya. It must be remembered that all these dharma-sūtras are applicable to all sections of their followers especially the four castes. The earliest available commentary is that of Śaṅkara. It is an extraordinary commentary available for only two chapters. The commentary of Śaṅkara on the chapter is titled “Ātma-Jñāna-yoga”. This chapter in dharma-sūtra is called Ādhyātma padalam dealing with the subject “Expiation” Prāyascitta. Śaṅkara says the prāyaścittas are helpful in eliminating blemishes and unwanted acts and rituals. He also points out that for an intelligent man all acts and rituals relating to castes (Varṇas) and stages of life (Āśramas) are unwanted because they relate only to the body. The knowledge of Soul is “Ātma-vidyā” which removes merit (puṇya) and sins (pāpa) attempted by men as in the case of lust and ignorance that induce men. Some men consider the observances of one’s dharma (sva-dharma) suited to their Varṇa and Āśrama gives fruits of happiness. Observances of one’s dharma no doubt give happiness, in the other world, (heaven) but Ātma-jñāna, (knowledge of self) is not like that. The Sage Gautama has said those who observe strictly the rules of their castes and Āśrama, will enjoy the fruits of their karma in heaven after death, and are born again. He has shown that the fruit of karma relates to worldly life alone. The blemishes (doṣa) are eliminated by following the disciplines like krodha, enumerated in the Sūtra. People of all stages of life can reach the same at all places by following these disciplines and not by following sva-dharma. Āpastamba says that he himself has left out, sub sects, sva-dharma etc., and further says Satya, Amṛta, Sukham, Duhkham, Vedam and this world and other world, should be abandoned and try to understand your own self. So, it is clear that all Karma led to Bandha they should be abandoned.

Śaṅkara rejects all Karma expecting heaven, etc., as these do not lead to ultimate reality. Further Śaṅkara says “one has to leave even Vedas, this world and heaven, happiness, and miseries”, etc., Ātma-jñāna is being beyond all these. He rejects Karma-kāṇḍa as unsuitable for final liberation, mokṣa. Śaṅkara is of the opinion that Kṣema-prāpti cannot be created newly by any artificial means. It exists already therefore it is eternal. So, this cannot be created by action with knowledge/Jñānayukta karma. The ignorance is the cause of karma. These obstruct the realisation of the self.

Śaṅkara says that Āpastamba also holds that a Paṇḍita/knower, after eliminating the doṣhas/blemishes that burns the life, attains Kṣema/Ātma-jñāna. Here is the Pānditya in Pandita stands for Ātma-jnāna. The Vedas say one who achieves the joy of Brahman will not be afraid of anything- “Ānandam brahmaṇo vidvān na bibheti kutascanęti”. Here, this verse means there is no fear from any source. Another Sruti also says “you Janaka, you have achieved the state of fearlessness”.

There is another sūtra in Āpastamba which says, following strictly the disciplines of all Āśramas one will achieve “Kṣema”. Here one who follows Āśrama disciplines without expecting any fruits is alone fit to attain Kṣema but not one who acts according to his own wish or who is after pleasures wife, children, and wealth is not suited for Ātma-jñāna. If one’s mind is attracted towards all these, he is not fit for Ātma-jñāna. After attaining Jñāna he attains Kṣema in due course. It is not possible to eliminate blemishes by any karma, for karma originates from desire, expectations that bends a man to bodily gain. So, as long as the defects of karma with false knowledge are not eliminated Jñāna is not possible. According to Śaṅkara Átma-jñāna is not possible by karma either with knowledge or without knowledge for karma always ends up in pursuit of something. Śaṅkara says that after attaining knowledge in stages by relinquishing everything, one attains Kṣema (jñānaprāpti anantaram, sarva sanyāsa kramena kṣemam prāpti iti) elimination of doṣa can never take place through Karma. Thus, karma done in the previous births or in this birth cannot lead to removal of doṣa. Because enjoyment of fruits of karma is dependent upon body which means attractions and hatred continue. Thus, at no cost karma can lead to liberation.
• Krodha
• Harṣaṇa
• Lobham
• Moham
• Dambam
• Droham
• Asatyavādam
• Atibojanam
• Dūṣaṇam
• Asūya
• Kāmam
• Manyu
• Indriya cāpalya
• Cancalam
Śaṅkara lists the above guṇas and those who conquers them is a Yogin. These guṇas burn the living beings. The antithesis of all these is called yogas. These are common to all people. One who follows all these are called Sarvāni. Jñāna manifests to him in stages and he becomes a Mukta (this proves that jīvanmukti is possible) Ātmā can be seen in one’s own body. All these defects are a yoga, removal of them is called yoga tyāga are called “Āryā”, the ways of the Āryas, this is also called “āpīḍa”. From all these we find Śaṅkara holds anyone can follow this path and attain mokṣha, not necessary only for sanyāsins. One who follows these are called sarva-sanyāsin.
This extraordinary commentary of Śaṅkara gives the summum bonum of his Advaita philosophy. We have seen that Śaṅkara cites Āpastamba in his Brahad-āraṇyaka Upaniṣad. (4.2-14). He also quotes in his Brahma-sūtra-bhāṣya, half of a verse from Āpastamba. As Āpastamba deals with Adhyātma Vidyā, in his chapters, 22 and 23 and Śaṅkara comments on them. It is evident that he leaned heavily on Taittiriya Samhitā of the Yajurveda for most of the Āpastambhiyas belonged to Yajurveda. While Śaṅkara took the lead from Āpastamba, Rāmānuja followed Bodhāyana emphasizing Karma-kāṇḍa.
The study of Dharma Śāstras in all the Vedic colleges has led to the gradual development of philosophical literature. What comes as firm message from Śaṅkara is one has to raise above all bondages and must even rise above the Vedas to realize Ātma-jñāna and this can be obtained by any irrespective of caste, creed, or Āśramas.