தமிழர் சமயம்

19. VEDIC CAMBODIA

19.1 Vedic traditions
The earliest recognizable religious system in India is the Vedic system. Anythying earlier than that are in the sphere of speculation. The Vedic system does not confine itself to the recitation of the Vedic hymns but goes beyond. The Vedas themselves are divided into the Karma-kāṇḍa - the rituals with hymns, and the Jñāna-kāṇḍa (Upaniṣads), the philosophical inquiry understanding the nature of self and its enlightenment. The system is incomplete by itself for it needs other auxiliary systems for its fulfillment.

There are six auxiliary systems known as ṣadaṅgas, such as Śikṣā, Kalpa, Chandas, Jyotiṣa, Vyākaraṇa, and Nirukta.
• Śikṣa involves pronouncing the sound appropriately
• Kalpa involves preparing the altars and the sequence of rituals
• Chandas pertains the rhythm of reciting
• Jyotiṣa involves calculating astronomical position to select the suitable time
• Vyākaraṇa pertains to the grammatical structure of the language, and
• Nirukta involves understanding the Vedic Devatas

Without these six aṅgas, the Vedic system would not be practical. All these branches of knowledge are designed for the rituals. However, for personal conduct and lifestyle, the Vedic system prescribes a code of individual and social conduct called the Dharma Śāstras which are also known as śmṛtī. These not only hold ritual authority but also include penal provisions for punishment. Thus, Vedic life encompasses both religious and secular aspects. All authorities include Dharma Śāstra like that of Manu an integral part of Vedic life. Another important factor is the presence of simplified texts for the understanding these Dharma by women, labour class and others are the two epics - the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata (Itihāsas) which are considered Dharma in action. There is a verse commonly recited by Indians suggests when the supreme being, which could be understood only through the Vedas, took birth as the son of Dasaratha, Valmīkī’s Rāmāyaṇa became the Veda. In other words, Rāmāyaṇa is seen as the “Veda”.
“Veda vedye pare pumsi jāte Dasaratātmaje
Vēdah Prācetas asīt sākshāt Rāmāyaṇātmanā”
Similarly, the Mahābhārata is called the fifth Veda, bhāratam pañcamo vēdah.

Therefore, the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata are part of Vedic studies. In fact, the Dharma Śāstra authoured by Yājñavalkya speaks of fourteen branches for the study of Vedas, which include the four Vedas, six Aṅgas, Purāṇa, Nyāya, Mīmāṁsā and Dharma Śāstras. These basic concepts are necessary for understanding the place of Vedas in the Cambodian religion. The Vedic tradition in Cambodia is studied in this paper mainly based on Cambodian Inscriptions. There are several technical words used in Cambodian epigraphs which should be understood from these points and not taken in the ordinary sense of the terms. I have used the work of R.C. Majumdar, published by Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta, 1953 (abbreviated as RCM). I have attempted to trace the Vedic traditions in Cambodia from the 5th to end of the 9th century.

19.2. Fifth century inscription
The Prasat Pram Liven inscription of Guṇavarman refers to the consecration of sacred feet of Viṣṇu, who is called “Cakratīrthasvāmi” (RCM no 2). The record is assigned to fifth century CE. According to the record, the pair of feet were consecrated on the eighth day (aṣtame ahani), by Brāhmins who resembled the very celestials on earth who were experts in Vedas, Upavedas and Vedāṅgas and who named it “Cakratīrthasvami”.
The Brāhmins are again called “Masters of śrutis”.
Asya aṣtame ahani vichitraih upaveda veda,
Vedāṅga-vidbhih, amara pratimaih dvijendraih
Samskāritasya kathitam bhuvi cakra tīrtha
Svāmiti nāma vidhaduh smṛtiṣu pravīnāh (verse 9)
This verse gives several points of interest. The feet of Viṣṇu were consecrated by Brāhmins who were:
• masters of Vedas, that is the samhitā part of the Vedas
• Upavedas or the Upaniṣads, the Jñāna-pāda of the Vedas
• the Vedāṅgas, meaning the six branches of Knowledge or the ṣadaṅgas,
This clearly indicates that a full complement of Vedic system has been used in this early record.

The reference to the eighth day, selected for consecration, points to the use of calculation as per Vedic Astronomy and such rites also include what is called naming the deity, nāma-karaṇa, in Vedic parlance. This being one of the most sacred acts undertaken by the prince, points to the use of Vedic system as the basis of all religious undertakings in early Cambodia.

Further, the verse continues to use a significant Vedic phrase. Guṇavarman made gifts to this foundation in pursuit of dharma (dharmārthinā) within his means (śaktitah).

We have seen that the Vedic system includes Dharma as a part. The use of this word Dharma at this stage is to record that it is the essential branch of Veda as well. The Dharma Śāstra further emphasized that religious acts of gifts should be undertaken within ones means. The gifts made ought to be in one’s own ownership and should be confined to his means and not beyond. The acts need to be within the boundaries of the Dharma.

Further, gifts should be given to one in need of it. So, the record says the gifts were made to Sages (vipra), Brāhmaṇas, helpless people (anāthas), poor (kṛpaṇa), devotees of Viṣṇu (Bhāgavatas) and those who served in the establishment (tat karma kāraih).

Yet another phrase in this record mentions those who served here will be relieved of their sins and attain the supreme abode of Viṣṇu “sa gacchet paramam padam vaiṣṇavam”. This is a phrase from the Vedas that reads “tat viṣṇoh paramam padam sadā paśyānti sūrayas”. It is interesting to note that the Vedic passage is used verbatim here. The same phrase is seen used again in the end as “labheta prāpya vishnoh padam sāsvatam”. The usage of the same Vedic passage for the second time, in the same record, illustrates the deeply rooted Vedic system in the life of Cambodia.

The famous Dharma Śāstra text, Yājñyavalkhya smṛti, prescribes the gift of nine planets in Vedic pursuit. The Prasat Ak Yom inscription records the dedication of a lintel to the temple of Gambhireśvara, with the sculpted figures of the nine Planets (Navagraha), a tradition arising from the Vedic dependence on astronomy. (BEFEO XXXIII 530 – 531; RCM 4 and 5)

19.3. Seventh century inscription
A Brāhmaṇa named Vidyābindu consecrated a footprint of Śiva in the Bayang temple in the year 604 CE. In the invocatory part of the inscription, he mentions Brahmam as the unparalleled inner effulgent consciousness, adored by learned men – “yam ābhyantaram jyotih upāsate bhudhāh niruttaram brahma param jigīṣavah” (verse 1) which is a clear pronunciation of Upaniṣadic knowledge (RCM no 8).

Another verse in the same record mentions the eightfold Yogic siddhis like “animā”.

The inscription of vidyā puṣpa of Phnom Prah vihāra, begins with an invocation to the eightfold form of Śiva consisting of the five basic elements - earth, air, fire, wind, and space along with sun, moon, and the self (Prapanta Vidyā, Epigraphical references to Śaivism in Thailand, Sahṛdaya, Tamiḻ Arts Academy, Chennai).
Vidyāpuṣpa, the donor was a Pāśupatācārya, who is praised as a poet adept in Śabda, Vaisēṣika, Nyāya, and Tattvārtta nischayī. The Pāśupatācāryas of Cambodia followed the Lakulisa Pāśupata system mentioned in the Liṅgapurāṇa. That they were deeply interested in Tattvārthas show their aim in Philosophy. (Coeds IC.3; RCM no 10)
A sister of king Bhava Varman and daughter of Vīravarman married a Brāhmaṇa named Soma Śarma who was a foremost Sāma Vedi. He consecrated an image of Śiva with Sūrya (RCM no 13). He also deposited the texts of the Rāmāyaṇa, Purāṇas and a complete text of Mahābhārata and arranged for their recitation on all the days without any break, thereby echoing forever. In this context it should not be taken that these texts were deposited in a general sense. It must be remembered that the inscription makes it explicit that the donor was a Sāmavedin. It is a part of the Vedic culture that is reflected here. Describing the lady, the record says that she was a Pativratā and Dharma rathā. The term Pativratā i.e., a chaste woman ever engaged in serving her husband as her Dharma and so was called Dharma rathā and she resembled the proverbial chaste lady . We have already seen women were not reading Vedas, but the Vedic culture included the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata as Vedas (pativratā dharmarathā divitiyā arundhati iva sā).
19.4. Eighth century inscription
An inscription at Sambhor Pra kuk of King Īśānavarman, dateable to around 627 CE calls him the incarnation of Vishnu. (Śri īśāna varma abhavat rājā viṣṇuh ivāparah). This comparison is a prescription of the Dharma Śāstra, which calls the ruling king as Viṣṇu (for Viṣṇu is the protector) “Nā-Viṣṇuh Prithvīpatih” says Manu in his text.
This king appointed a learned Brāhmaṇa, Vidyā-visēṣa, who was a Pāśupatācārya, to carry out all prescribed rituals mentioned in the text as “Iti-kartavyatā” which is a Vedic terminology. He was an expert in Śabda, Vaisēṣika, Nyāya, Samikṣā and Buddhist conducts, so much so he was listed as the foremost scholar in many Śāstras by learned men.
Sabda vaiseṣika nyāya samikṣa sugatādibhih
Dhuri yo likhita aneka śāstra prhata Buddhibhih
The establishment of Śiva by him was done on a most auspicious day. All rites need to be done on astronomically selected days “Puṣya yogini īṣāsya divase simha lagne ca sthitah ayam Harah” calculated by Vedic principle. (Finot in BEFEO XXVIII 14; RCM 16)
One Īśāna datta, consecrated an image of Hari Hara and a Liṅga which represented Achyuta and Śaṅkara under Īśāna varman.

Śaṅkarāchyutayoh ardha sarīra pratimām imām
Eka samstha sukritaye yo gurunām attṣṭhipat
Viṣṇuh candeśara īśāna liṅgam tena pratiṣṭhiam
The representation of Śaṅkara and Achyuta was a very popular trend in Cambodia, as many inscriptions refer to their consecrations. This peculiar expression “Viṣṇu Candeśa Liṅgam”, a Liṅga emobidying both Viṣṇu and Īśana deserves special attention. This arises from the adoration of a dual deity in the Yajurveda named “Agnā-Viṣṇu”. There are several hymns in the Veda on this dual deity. The Veda itself gives the meaning of this dual deity in clear manner.

A question is raised in the context of an offering of ghee in a sacrifice, called Vasordhārā. The question raised by this passage is to which deity this offering is made? The Veda answers:
Agni is Vasuh and this offering is addressed to Agni.
Viṣṇu is a Vasu and this offering is addressed to Viṣṇu.
Who is Agni in Agnā-Viṣṇu, the Veda continues.
This Agni in Agnā-Vishnu is none other than Rudra, the terrific heat energy that consumes.

Rudro va esha yad Agnih Viṣṇu,
in this dual deity is the beneficial auspicious body. The dual body of Agnā-vishnu, has both a terrific body that is Agni along with the beneficial power of Viṣṇu also known as Śivā (the feminine counterpart of Śiva). This Vasordhāra offering is meant for this combined body of Rudra and Śivā who are called Agnā-Viṣṇu in the hymn.

This explanation by the Veda itself is explicit to the dual nature of the concepts of Śaṅkara and Achyuta (Hari Hara /Śaṅkara Nārāyaṇa) is a Vedic visualization. The same dual deity also is what we call Śiva - Śivā/Ardha-nāri. The Veda itself identifies Śiva with Viṣṇu, and Śiva with Śivā (Pārvati). The dual deity Agnā-Vishnu mentioned as Śiva Viṣṇu in some places, Śiva and Śivā at other places in Śata Rudrīyam. This hymn is the main reason for adoration of a Liṅga as Sivāchyutau or Ardhanāri in many inscriptions of Cambodia. For it is repeatedly mentioned that “Liṅga” represents the flame of fire (Agni)”. We will now look at the relevant hymn and its meaning.
Agnāvishnu sajoṣase.. Vasordhārām juhoti
he offers the ghee to Vasus
Kāsya devatāyai juhvat.
To which deity is this offering?i
Agnāvishnu Arccā
This offering is to the sacred deity
Aganā-Viṣṇu Rudro vā esha yad Agnih
This Agni is none other than Rudra
Tasya ete tanūvau He has this dual body
Ghorā anyā Śivā anyā
one is a ferocious body and the other is a benign body.
Yā asya Ghorā tanūh
That which is his ferrocious body
Tasya eshā dhārā
This offering is to his ferocious body
Śatarudrīyam Juholi
for this purpose, he offers the
Saratudrīyam hymn tena tām Samayati
by this he cools down that body
Yā asya Śivā tanūh
that which is his benign body
vasordhāram juhoti
To that body he offers
Vasordhāra hymn Tena tām prīnāti.
by this he pleases him
It is known that many forms of combined deities “Indrāgni”, “Mitrā Varuṇa”, and “Agniṣoma” etc., are invoked and worshipped in the Vedas. They are also worshipped individually and sometimes in many combined forms for invocation and receiving the fulfillment of multiple prayers. This is like endowing divine figures with multiple arms so that each arm may fulfil different benefactions. This important aspect of Ardhanāri or Hari Hara forms in Vedic culture has been missed by earlier scholars. They were unable to get around the idea that Śaivism and Vaiṣṇavism are different. Some scholars even suggested that these two deities were according to original Vedic tradition and the syncretic forms were later in point of times.

The Vedic tradition which is believed in multiplicity of divine powers was essentially a Pantheistic religious system which could worship singularly or in combined forms and that was the hall mark of Cambodian religion and in fact the whole Southeast Asian religion and that arises from the Vedic mindset. Integration of Buddha in the same Liṅga which portrayed Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva in one and the same Liṅga is in that spirit. We have in Cambodia many Liṅgas portraying Buddha with Śiva, Viṣṇu, and Brahmā in the same tradition. It would also show the firm establishment of Vedic religion much earlier to all other forms and epigraphy supports the fact.

Around the beginning of 7th century, an interesting record of Nṛpāditya deva refers to Himālayas, Malaya and Sumeru mountains, all venerated in India. The Śiva Liṅga, said to be broad and big was installed in a brick-built temple by one Kumārāmba whose mother is called “sad dharma pathacārini” a follower of righteous Dharma path and also a tapasvins, observer of penances. This is a declaration of a follower of Dharma Śāstra in her daily life and she made the gifts, desirous of spiritual merit to go to heaven “prāyacchat paralokāya dānābhyudaya kānkṣini”.

Another significant title of her also shows the influence of Rāmāyaṇa over her lifestyle. It says she was performing penance and was ever engaged in religious studies. “Tapas svādhyāya niratā”. Besides indicating her piety, the phrase is very significant. We have noted earlier that study of Rāmāyaṇa is a part of Vedic life. This epic begins with the phrase “tapas svādhyāya niratam” which is the first statement in the epic. The very same phrase is used here indicating she was constantly reading Rāmāyaṇa which was specially prescribed for women and the fourth varṇas (inscription of Nripādiditya, at Nui Ba, (RCM 23)

The record of Ācārya Vidyāvinaya, dated 629 CE, mentions King Jayavarman I as “dharmajñas”. The Cambodian kings were guided by Dharma Śāstra in all aspects of their rule. The Ācārya Vidyāvinaya calls the lotuses offered at the feet of Viṣṇu looked as though they reflected the “dharma” which remain pure in the mind. The record also shows the reliance on astronomy as it mentions “the third day of the month of Chitra was the most suited time for making the gift”.

In 639 CE, King Bhavavarman installed an image of Goddess Chaturbhujā on a day when the half-moon entered kanyā the beginning of month of Tiṣya (Puṣya) on the eleventh day of the dark fortnight pointing to the importance of astronomy (Jyotiṣa calculations). Referring to the king, the record likens the king to Manu and other kings. It is known Manu was the originator of kingship in Vedic tradition and the author of Dharma Śāstra. (Coedes BEFEO iv, 691) "Manvādi bhūpāla muṣṭhih"

The code of good conduct in Vedic tradition is often listed as “śīla, śruti, śama, kṣamā, dayā, samyama, and dhīh” (good conduct, learning, balanced dealing, forbearance, compassion, control of senses, intelligence) that are hall marks of respectability. These are listed in an inscription of Jayavarman. Two brothers called Bhikṣus, were praised for these qualities. The gift was made on the second day of the bright fortnight of the month of Māgha (year 665 CE) (Barth ISC. 60; RCM 29).

King Jayavarman’s record dated 667 CE in Kedai Ang temple refer to two brothers who were physicians resembling two Aswini devas who served the king Bhavavarman as his ministers. They were knowledgeable in Dharma Śāstras like the twin puruṣārthas, “dharma and artha” and learned in Vedas.
tasya tau mant rinau āstām sammatau krta vedinau
dharma sāstrartha sastrajnau dharmarthau iva rūpinau.
This text includes Artha Śāstra, in addition to Dharma Śāstra, as an important qualification for being a minister.
Two of their descendants were appointed to serve the same king as successors. The king is praised as full of humility even though a boy, and when he attained youthhood he remained conquering his senses, and when he started the trivarga rule, he was more concerned with dharma.

The dharma is generally said to stand on four legs and poetically it was a convention to describe that the dark age of Kali shakes dharma, but in this case the text says though the Kali age tried to shake the dharma, it could not shake even one of its legs, which means the king established the dharma firmly in his rule (RCM no 30).

Another tradition of the Vedic followers was to perform daily three important sacrifices namely one to the Devas, the second to the Ṛṣis and the third to own Ancestors (Pitṛs). The first is called Devayajña, the second called Ṛṣiyajña and the third is called Pitṛyajñas. This king performed three yajñas daily, first by worshipiing Śiva he did Devayajña, by studying Vedas he performed Ṛṣiyajnas and his Pitṛ-tarpaṇ with waters.
“Śiva yajena devān, riṣin sva adhyanena ca
Pitṛīn ca atarpayat toyaih sat putra kara nissṛtaih”
The Devayajña is generally performed in fire, but he substituted it by worship of Śiva's image. It is an indication that the Vedic tradition is getting adjusted from fire worship to image worship and yet the image worship was included in daily fire worship. At the end of this record, the king gives full details about the astronomical data. It is amazing how deep the Vedic astronomy was rooted in Southeast Asia.

An inscription of this King is of great interest in this regard. It is unfortunately damaged at the beginning but gives undisputed contact with the king of Kāñcīpuram who sent a Brāhmaṇa, Dharmaswāmi to the Cambodian king, who did yeomen service to education, defence, economy, navy etc., with his sons. Dharmaswāmi was said to be a master of Vedas, and Vedāṅgas and effectively resembled the very Dharma.
Atrāsīt brāhmaṇo vidvān Veda Vedāṅga pāragah
Dharmaswāmiti vikhyātah sākṣāt dharma iva (aparāh)
He was given the chieftainship of a town named Dharmapura.

There was a great library called Saraswati and many irrigation canals (water ways) dug by students, and a research hall (Vipraśālā) for Brāhmins.

Among the sons of Dharmaswāmi, one became the Commander of the army, another became the Commander of the Palace guards, and a third in charge of the Navy. The temple at Dharmapura was called Āmrātakeśvara and it is pertinent to mention, the temple of Śiva at Kāñcīpuram in Tamiḻnāḍu, which was called originally Ekamban - singular pillar came to receive the name Ekāmranātha, the temple of mango. The contribution of Vedic scholars to all aspects of Cambodian life is well brought out in this inscription. We know from his early inscription, this king Jayavarman I was a great lover ofVedas and Dharma and established the Trivarga. His Barai inscription tells us more about his other accomplishments like prowess, love of arts and other sciences. He was an expert archer, able horse and elephant rider and unequalled commander of foot soldiers. He also specialized in classical music, instrumental music, dance, and other fine arts and excelled in aesthetics of these arts. He was a master gemologist. These multi- disciplinary studies from Vedas to other all other branches, made him one the greatest rulers of Cambodia. The epithet bestowed on him “nānā śāstra kritābhiyogi. The following verse from Barai inscription gives his achievements.
“mātaṅga aśvīya martha bala mano yuddha sikṣāvid agrayo yah
sadgīta ātodya nṛtta anupama dhiṣanah śāstra sūkṣmārtha cintāmani ratna prajñā titiksā vinaya naya matih"
The Prasat pra tāt inscription refers to depositing a manuscript of “Śāmbhava pustaka” which is called Vyāsa sattra by one Bhava Jñāna. This is a part of Ādi Parva of the Mahābhārata. This record calls it a Nibandham i.e., composition equated to a great sacrifice, sattra.
19.5. Ninth century inscription
King, Jayavarman II, who ascended the throne in 802 CE, had an Ācārya called Śrīnivāsa Kavi also Bhagāvata Kavi, who was a son of great master of Veda and Vedāṅgas. and Vyākaraṇottamah. This Śrīnivāsa kavi was later conferred title Prithvīndra Paṇḍita.

The Prasat Khandol Thom inscription of Śr Indravarman, dateable to 880 CE is well known for its reference to the Ācārya Śivasoma. The king, Indravarman himself was a performer of daily Vedic sacrifices. One of the verses referring to his Vedic sacrifices, says that the smoke rising from the Yajñas and Agnihotras (performed daily) rose up to sky, looking as if announcing his victory to the celestials. The Cambodian kings performed daily Vedic sacrifices as prescribed in Vedic codes is made explicit by this mention. The inscription gives a long list of achievements of the Ācārya Śivasoma. He is said to have learnt all the śāstras from one Bhagavad Śaṅkara, who himself was a great Ācharya, whom all the leared men adored. He learnt all other Vidyās from another scholar named Rudrācārya, who was a master on Vedas and Vedāṅgas. Besides, he also learned from learned men who were experts and also aged, texts like Tarka, Kāvya, Vyākaraṇa, Purāṇa, the whole of the Mahābhārata, and all Śaiva Śāstras which is a good illustration of Cambodian Ācāryas. In addition to Vedic and Vedāṅga learning, they spent considerable years with the Brāhmaṇas in studying other branches of knowledgeable connected with Vedas.
Here, I may cite an Ācārya under the Pallava Nandivarman almost a contemporary with Śivasoma who is described as an expert in the Vedas and Vedāṅgas, and a master of Kāvya, Nāṭaka, Itihāsa and Purāṇa.
19.6. Tenth Century
We may continue to show the foundation of Vedas that continued to play a crucial role in Cambodian civilization, but it is sufficient if I close this account with that Yasovarma, the great, who ascended the throne in 890 CE. (RCM 60). His contribution is so vast that it may require a complete volume to do justice. He has left his inscription, each containing over one hundred verses, in eleven different places consecrating in each a different God or Goddess and also adding a Viprāsrama to offer Vedic sacrifices for Devas, Ṛṣis and Pitṛs.

He was born of a Brāhmaṇa family, whose originator was Agastya by name, who came to Cambodia, from Āryādeśa and who married a girl named Yasomati. This Agastya was not the Ṛṣi of Vedic period, the composer of several Vedic hymns but one of that gotra, called Agastis. This King Yasovarman was a descendent of this couple. This Agastya from Āryādeśa is described as Veda Vedāṅgavit. Clearly, the contact between India and Cambodia was far more intimate than we assume. Besides, his parental Vedic and Vedantic learning, king Yasovarman mastered all great Sanskrit and Prākṛt works of India. It speaks to his credit that he himself wrote a commentary on Saint Patañjali’s Mahābhāṣya. That he had studied Kālidāsa, Bhāravi, Mayūra, the Mahābhārata, and the Rāmāyaṇa from which he quotes extensively in his inscriptions, shows the impact they left on Cambodia. For example, he says he protected the Kampu-pura as Rāghava (Rāma) protected Ayodhya. At another place also he mentions Rāma rājya.

Similarly, the Jaina tradition calls five stages from birth to nirvāṇa as Kalyāṇas and calls them Pañcakalyāṇa. Evidently, Yasovarman studied these Jain traditions, which were also rooted in Vedic tradition.

The adoration of Sūrya as Savitā is the foremost prayer of the Vedic life, exemplified in the Gāyatrī hymn. Mayūra’s Sūryaśataka consisted of one hundred verses in praise Sūrya. The study of Mayūra’s work by Yasovarma, is out of his veneration for Savitā the Vedic deity.

We have seen earlier, a predecessor of Yasovarman claimed to have performed the three yajñas daily, to Devas, Ṛṣis and Pitrīn. Yasovarman also says that he performed these three yajñas daily.
"Sāgram yatīnām ayutam dvijendrān ahanyahani avarena Devān
Havyam Pitrīn tarpayati sma kavyaih"
The personal conduct of the King was thus strictly in accordance with the Vedic injunctions.

It is known the capital of Thailand was Ayodhya and the king called Śri Rāma, and the kingdom called Rāmarājya. It is not unlikely that the establishment Ayutthi as capital in Thailand was influenced by Yasovarman's inspiration. Besides the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata, he studied Prākṛt kavyas such as Pravarasena’s Sethu-bhandha, Guṇadya’s Brahad-kathā and Bimaha’s text and the Jain Kalyāṇarupam etc. He has studied Sāṅkhya philosophy and Visālaksa's Nīti Śāstra etc. He had been a great lover of Purāṇas, so much so, he says that he was a lover Purāṇa and kāvya rasas so he established one hundred Āśramas and created Yasodhara tadākās at a number of places.

The impact of Vedic tradition in Temple culture is revealed in the establishment of a temple to Goddess “Nidrā”. The worship of Nidrā is rarely mentioned. We may wonder who this Nidrā goddess is. Nidrā is propitiated in a Vedic hymn known as Nidrā Sūktam in association with Rātrī Sūktam. It is the faculty that resides in every living being as māyā who keeps the consciousness awake when he goes to sleep and when one raises up from slumber continues in his consciousness. In other words, all the experiences and knowledge one has will disappear when he gets up but for this faculty. The power to lull one to sleep and remove his darkness of sleep when he gets up is called Nidrādevi. This is generally portrayed in sculptural form in Viṣṇu in his Anantasāyi. From the Vedic Nidrā Sūktam, grew into the enchanting text called Devimāhātmyam in which the story begins with Viṣṇu’s cosmic sleep and Brahmā praying to Nidrā Devi to leave Viṣṇu so that he could wake up and destroy the demons, Madhu and Kaiṭabha. Nidrā is one aspect of Goddess Durgā. This is brilliantly portrayed in Māmallapuram, in Tamiḻnāḍu by the Pallavas, with Ananthasayi on one side and Mahiṣāsuramardini on the other side. The Pallava have devised a clever method of Goddess of Sleep in the form of sleeping Anantasāyi. The Goddess is seen shown flying away from the reclining Viṣṇu even as the two demons are trying to attack Viṣṇu shown by his leg side. This is the only image of this Goddess known thus far. But we do not know the form of Nidrā portrayed by Yasovarman. However, the mention of the Goddess by the name Nidrā is an indication not only the influence of these Vedic Sūktas, but also the text per excellence Devīmāhātmyam. The same ruler installed another image called Rudrāṇi who is Kālī (Bhairavi). The story of Durgā Mahiṣāsuramardini and Kālī are detailed in Devīmāhātmyam which is an extension of Vedic hymns.