A beautiful metal image of Śivakāmi found in Kāraikkāl region is now in the Pondichery museum. It was encrusted with sand and was cleaned by the National Museum laboratory when it was found and carries a lovely inscription in Tamiḻ characters and language on its pedestal. Before examining the importance, a translation and analysis of the inscription is given. Translation “Svasti śri in the 2nd year of Śrī Rājamahēndra dēva, Sempoṉ Māṇikkadeva alias Parāntaka Māyilaṭṭi consecrated the Goddess, consort of Ajapā-viṭaṅkadēva, the God dancing in the Mahādēvar temple of Pañcavaṉ-mahādevic-curam in Siddhapuram alias Pukalōkam, in the territorial division Paṭṭiṇakkūṟṟam in Adhirājarāja vaḷanāḍu.
We the members of the merchant guild of Siddhapuram of this village endowed in the hands of Māṇikka-mādevaṉ (the priest) belonging to Ātreya gotra, in charge of this temple and his sons and sons’ sons, ten vēlis of land, east of our land and the west of Aiyveli nilam, and with this ten vēlis of land he and his descendants should arrange to fulfill the endowment in perpetuity so long as the sun and moon last.
The (proceeds from the) endowment of ten vēlis, four measures of rice for food offering should be measured at the rate of one nāḻi for the (midday) sandhi, one nāḻi for the night sandhi, and one nāḻi for cooked vegetables, one hundred betel sandhis, to the goddess, consort of this god (of dancing).
The rice should be measured by the (standard) measure named after the God Mahā Viṣṇu (Aranagar) pleased to stand in the temple of Rājarāja viṇṇagar of this village.
I, Śaṅkaraṉ Thiruveṅkataṉ, the scribe of the commercial guild of this village wrote this deed as ordered.”
Some parts of the record that is mainly in two parts are damaged, but the import of the record is clear enough.
Part, one records the consecration of this metal image of Śivakāmi as the consort of Naṭarāja named Ajapā-dēvar in the Mahādeva temple of this village Siddhapuram. The second part deals with the endowment of land by the commercial guild of this village for worship of this goddess by providing daily food offerings during two services (sandhis). The endowment was entrusted in the hands of the temple priest and his family with the stipulation that they should arrange regularly for the worship daily. The person who drafted the deed was the scribe of this commercial guild of this village. The record may now be studied in detail. The Village The village Puloka (written as Pukaloka) also called as Siddhapura was situated in the territorial division Adhirājarāja vaḷanāḍu near Kāraikkāl in the greater division Paṭṭiṇakkūṟṟam (Nāgappaṭṭinam division) a port town in the east coast. The name Paṭṭiṇakkūṟṟam is applied to Nāgappaṭṭinam.
Another record in the place calls it Puloka-māṇikkam. The village included a commercial settlement of merchants called Siddhapuram. The term puram indicates that it was essentially a merchants’ colony with member of other communities also living in it. It is not known after whom the name Siddhapuram is derived. There was a family of Siddhavatava under the Cōḻas. It is not known whether it had any connection with them. The usage “ivvūrnagarattōm” suggest that nagara was a part of the larger village. The usage Puloka alias Siddhapuram indicates that the second name was a subsequent addition. The merchant colony had a merchant guild that looked after the common administration of the merchant community. It had common landholdings in the village besides individual holdings. The Śiva temple, to which the Naṭarāja image belonged, was called Pañcavaṉ-mādevīśvaram, after the name of the Queen of Rājarāja and in all probability, either Rājarāja or his queen built this temple. This is further confirmed by the presence of a Viṣṇu temple in the same village named Rājarāja viṇṇagar clearly named after Rājarāja. The village seems to have been re-laid in the time of Rājarāja and both the temples built at the same time. Some of the bronzes found in the collection belonged to Rājarāja’s time.
The devotee who had the metal image of Śivakāmi, the consort of Naṭarāja made, belonged to the merchant community as his name Māyilaṭṭi. His first name Māṇikka-dēvaṉ is his personal name while the second name Parāntaka suggests that it was a royal title. He seemed to have received royal recognition. The name Māṇikka-dēvaṉ was a popular name of a deity of this region as seen from the name of the priest who was also Māṇikka-dēvaṉ.
We have seen that the merchant who consecrated the Śivakāmi metal image belonged to the merchant guild of the village. The guild came forward to bestow a parcel of land common to the guild, for purpose of worship and food offering. The guild took the collective decision (ivvūrnagarattōm) and endowed the land from its common holding expressed as (nam nilam).
The Naṭarāja image is called “Ajapā-viṭaṅkadēva”, meaning pleased to dance in the temple of Pañcavaṉ-mādevīśvaram at Siddhapuram. The main metal image of Thiruvārūr Tyagarāja temple which is a Somaskanda image is called Vīthi-viṭaṅka-dēvaṉ. The dance of the deity at Thiruvārūr is called “Ajapā-naṭaṉam”. The Tēvāram hymns of Appar mention the deity of Thiruvārūr as “Vīti-viṭaṅkar”. The name Ajapā-naṭaṉam represents a particular philosophy. In the procession of Thyagarāja, the carriers of the image exhibit violent swings and jumps simulating the Ajapā dance.
Seven such Viṭaṅka-kṣetras are recognized in the region. The deities taken out in procession in these seven temples are said to perform seven different forms of dance. The inscribed image from Kāraikkāl region connects both the names Ajapā and Viṭaṅkar and applies it to the image of Naṭarāja. It suggests that the name has been derived from Thiruvārūr, where the Somāskanda image is called Viṭaṅkar, and this name was well known in the Cōḻa times mid 11th century. Śiva appeared as a captivating youth Bhikṣāṭana, wandering naked in the Dārukāvana, singing and dancing, to entice the wives of the sages. This form is called as Viṭaṅkar in common parlance. It is interesting to recall that the Ānanda-naṭaṉam of Chidambaram is closely associated with Bhikṣātana episode of Dārukāvana in the sthalapurāṇa (local legend). It is portrayed in a painting prominently in the ceiling of the Śivakāmi ammaṉ shrine at Chidambaram. Further, the festival of Bhikṣātaṇa is given a special position in Chidambaram. These facts establish close connection between Bhikṣāṭana philosophy and that of Naṭarāja. According to Liṅgapurāna, Śiva enacted the Bhikṣāṭana episode in the Dārukavanam to teach the sages the path of Pāśupata system. Śiva performed different dances at different times, like the Tripura-tāṇḍava, Ūrdhva-tāṇdava etc. This Ānanda-tāṇḍava is associated with Bhikṣāṭana episode. The inscription shows that the devotee consecrated the image of the Goddess when the Naṭarāja was already under worship in the temple. There is another instance of consecrating the Goddess subsequent to the making of Śiva. The famous Vṛṣavāhana was consecrated in 1011 CE in the temple of Thiruveṇkāḍu and its consort Goddess in the next year in 1012. In some instances, the tradition of making the bronze image of Śiva first and the Goddess later was prevalent probably due to economic reasons. This inscription also shows that the metal images consecrated in the temples received food offerings twice everday. This is the first time a dated bronze of the time of Rājamahēndra Cōḻa has come to light. It may also be noted that at Nāgapaṭṭinam situated near this temple, the tradition of inscribing on the metal image was very popular as we find a good number of Buddhist bronzes with inscribed pedestals. 17.1. Somanātha temple of Kumbakōṇam The Bāṇapurīśvara temple, in Kumbakōṇam town is of historic interest to students of Cōḻa art. It points to not only the development of Kumbakōṇam township but also a perceptible change in the art of Kumbakōṇam . There are ten inscriptions on the walls of the temple copied and published by the Tamiḻnaḍu State Department of Archaeology1, in the volume on Kumbakōṇam inscriptions1. Before the temple is studied it would be advantageous to study the inscriptions. The earliest inscription on the temple is dated in the 9th year of Kulōttuṅga Cōḻa III, 1187 CE2. There are four inscriptions of this ruler including two of his own royal orders. The other six inscriptions are records of the reign of Kulōttuṅga's son and successor Rājarāja Cōḻa III. The earliest inscription refers to the purchase of a land with houses and house-sites in the town of Kumbakōṇam by one Rājarājas Vānakōvaraiyaṉ from the members of a family who also held some distinguished posts under the Chōḻās3. The family members who sold the land were called Aṇukkap-pallavarāyar, verily close officers of the king. About 5 vēlis of Lands including some houses, house-sites, wells, canals etc., were bought by the Vānakōvaraiyaṉ, for a sum of 8000 kācus. This land along with some more lands measuring 18 vēlis in all, were now bought by Vānakōvaraiyaṉ and a sale deed obtained. The inscription stops with the purchase and sale deed. The next record dated in the 11th year of the same ruler is the royal order4. It states that the purchaser Vānakōvaraiyaṉ informed the king that the land was separated from Kumbakōṇam and constituted into a new colony under the name Somanātha-maṅgalam, and some more land in Āṟṟūr was gifted to the Somanātha temple in Somanātha-maṅgalam as the property of the God. The king approved the above and now ordered that the same should be inscribed on the walls of the temple.2 The Royal secretary of the king and other high officers signed the order. It is clear from these transactions that the Vānakōvaraiyar purchased the land for establishing the new colony Somanātha-maṅgalam and built the temple of Somanātha-deva and that the present Bāṇapurīśvara temple is the Somanātha-deva temple mentioned in the inscriptions. This is further confirmed by all the other records that refer to the transactions relating to the Somanātha temple3.
The next inscription is dated in the 15th year of the King5. The same Vānakōvaraiyaṉ obtained a flower garden situated in Kumbakōṇam but belonging to the Rājarājīśvara temple (of Dārāsuram) and got it deleted from the registers of the Dārāsuram temple. He now constituted the new colony Somanātha-maṅgalam for the Somanātha-deva temple, its front yard, its sacred tank, and servants’ quarters around (maṭha-vilākam). This land was now exempted from paying tax and its old name was also changed into Somanātha-maṅgalam. Consequently, the revenue division was also changed. It was decided each veli of land should pay 40 kalams of paddy. The record is damaged in places. However, it is clear that Vānakōvaraiyar obtained necessary approval from the king and got the new colony completed by the 15th year (1193 CE) of the King.
Five of the other records are dated in the reign of Rājarāja Cōḻa III in his 4th and 6th years6. All these record purchase of lands and endowments made to the temple of Somanātha. The last inscription is a fragment recording a poem to be engraved. It is thus clear there was originally a vast land in the town of Kumbakōṇam serving as a flower garden for the Dārāsuram temple. This part of the Kumbakōṇam was bifurcated in the 10th year of Kulōttuṅga III (1188 CE) and a new village settlement created with the Somanātha temple also built in that year. The village was called Somanātha-maṅgalam. It goes in modern times by the name Bāṇaturai and the temple Bāṇapurīśvara. As the new colony and the temple were brought into existence by Vānakovaraiyaṉ, it is possible that the settlement came to be called Vānapuri after this chief and the temple assumed the name Bāṇapurīśvara.
The temple is a modest structure and has recently undergone renovation. It is a three storied vimāna built of stone unto the ceilings of the first floor. It is not possible to say whether the superstructure is brick or stone. However, the karṇa-kūṭah and mukha-badra are well articulated projecting from the walls distinctly. While the ground floor is square in form the griva and the śikhara are circular in shape and would thus fall into the category of Vesara vimāna. The garbhagraha is preceded by an agra-maṇḍapa which in turn has a preceding maṇḍapa now called Nṛtta-maṇḍapa. The vimāna rises on an upa-piṭha which now lies mostly buried. The surrounding ground level has risen. The adhiṣṭhāna is the kapota-bandha variety with padma-jagati and vṛtta-kumuda which has three different flutings - the horizontal and vertical fluting and plain kumuda form. The niches on the walls of the vimāna carry the following images: Gaṇeśa (original) in the south maṇḍapa niche, Dakṣiṇāmūrti in the south vimāna niche, Ardhanārīśvara at the back niche, while the northern vimāna niche that would carry Brahmā is now empty and finally Durgā in the northern niche of the maṇḍapa. The agra-maṇḍapa niches housing Gaṇeśa and Durgā are flanked by niches which are now empty. The Ardhanārīśvara image at the back niche doesn't seem to be original as it is shorter compared to the niche. It is possibly brought from some other place and placed here. The Durgā sculpture is an exceptionally beautiful image and a classic example of Kulōttuṅga III's time. Similarly, the image of Dakṣiṇāmurti is another very fine sculpture of Kulōttuṅga III's period. The Caṇḍikeśvara shrine is also original though its superstructure has changed. The front Nṛtta-maṇḍapa adorned with ornate pillars is original and as is the custom of the age, the entrance to the maṇḍapa is by lateral steps that have now been replaced by front steps. The enclosure and the entrance seem to have been rebuilt and probably the area has shrunk during the centuries. Interestingly the Goddess is called Soma-kalāmbika. It may be said the Somanātha temple (the modern Bāṇapurīśvara temple) is the finest example Kulōttuṅga III's period in the town of Kumbakōṇam.
The name Somanātha occurring for the colony and the temple in the reign of Kulōttuṅga III deserves special attention. A number of places and temples came to be called Somanātha-maṅgalam and Somanāthīśvara in and around Kumbakōṇam in the reign of Kulōttuṅga III7. There is a Somanāthiśvara temple at Palaiyārai8. The present Achyuta-maṅgalam near Naṉṉilam was called Somanātha-maṅgalam and the temple called Somanātha-deva temple9. It is known that Kulōttuṅga III's Rājaguru was one Somanātha-deva. The great temple built by Kulōttuṅga III at Tribhuvanam near Kumbakōṇam was consecrated by this Somanātha who was also called Īśvara Śiva, the son of Śrīkaṇṭha Śiva10. This Somanātha was a great Scholar who interpreted the Upaniṣads in terms of Śaiva philosophy. He is also credited with a work called Siddhāna-ratnākara. The Tribhuvanam inscription giving this information also calls him Ārya Somanātha, the son of Śrīkaṇṭha Sambhu11. It is now known that Śrīkaṇṭha Sambhu hailed from Rādha country (Bengal) and was the builder of the Achyuta-maṅgalam temple12. The Great temple of Tribhuvanam itself was under the guidance of Somanātha who was a Bengali guru. Evidently, the Somanātha-maṅgalam and Somanāthīśvara temple that came into existence in the time of Kulōttuṅga III were after this Rājaguru Somanātha. It is not unlikely he was responsible for its consecration. I have suggested earlier that the Somanātha temple at Palaiyārai came into existence in the time of Kulōttuṅga III13. I have also shown that Rājarāja II, the builder of the temple at Dārāsuram had a Bengali Rājaguru and that the Dārāsuram temple also was guided by a Bengali guru14. It would appear that the art of Bengal as patronized by the Pāla dynasty of Bengal left its impact on Cōḻa art. For example, the sculptures at Tañjāvūr built by Rājarāja and the one at Gaṅgaikoṇḍa-chōḻa-puram built by Rājēndra would have had a rough finish, but from the time Bengali gurus are seen predominantly guiding the temple activities the sculptures are given a very high polish. It is well known that the Pāla sculptures have a high polish and the Cōḻa sculptures of the 12th and 13th century have the Pāla finish.
It is in all likely hood due to Pāla influence. It is of interest to mention that there exists in Kumbakōṇam another temple called Somēśvara adjacent to the famous Saraṅgapaṇi temple. This Somēśvara should not be confused with the Somanātha temple of the inscription. There is no inscription on the walls of this Someśvara temple. The temple itself carries some portrait like sculptures on the walls flanking the main niches of the vimāna. The sculptures are of 10th century, but the temple seems to have been rebuilt intelligently integrating the above-mentioned sculptures into the fabric of the temple. The adhiṣṭhāna has a well pronounced padma-jagati topped by a vṛtta-kumuda with well-formed taraṅga motif. This motif seems to be late but the adhiṣṭhāna part gives a misleading picture of early date. Above the adhiṣṭhāna, the wall is certainly a later building. But there is feeling that the original height of the structure has been reduced in the rebuilding. Judging from the portrait like sculpture, the wall should have been somewhat taller. The portrait-like sculpture of which six are in position seems to suggest that are the Dikpālās and certainly of 10th century, following closely the Nagēśvara temple sculpture. Though these do not come anywhere near the Nagēśvara sculptures in esthetics, they seem to be nearer in time. Why this temple came to be called Somēśvara is not known. The notice board placed at the entrance states that this temple was also known as Kārōṇam (Kāyārōhaṇam). The Tēvāram hymns do sing of a Kāroṇam temple of Kuḍantai (Kumbakōṇam). There is another temple in Kumbakōṇam called Kasi Viśvanātha temple which is also identified with Kāroṇam. This needs to be studied in detail. However, the Somēśvara temple is different from the Somanātha temple mentioned in the inscription, built in the reign of Kulōttuṅga III. It is possible that the present Somēśvara temple was rebuilt under the inspiration of the Guru Somanātha.
17.2. A Kerala village Kodunthirappalli (Pālakkāḍu) Agrahāram Introduction Kodunthirappali (Pālakkāḍu) in Kerala is a fascinating village, the existence if which is traced to 800 years back, with a long row of houses with uniform facades and remarkably tiled architectural roofing which at once instill the admiration of the visitor. It is a surviving model of an ancient village lay out (Grāma vinyāsa) that deserves to be protected as a Heritage village by the Unesco, for many of its ancient traits. Almost all the houses follow the same ground plan with the street running east west and are aligned in a remarkable same type of façade providing an exciting straight line, without any awkward projections. Residential plan One enters a house through a north or south facing entrance and all houses are provided with tiṇṇai for the inmates to sit, relax and watch any event happening in the street. I saw one house, obviously of a rich family, provided with a valabhi, wooden railings of the slanting type, noticed in North Indian temples and ancient Karnātaka but not seen in Tamiḻnāḍu. The entrance leads on to a central hall through a passage called reshi and a side room. At one end of the hall there is a wooden staircase to climb to the first floor, made of wooden flooring and usually a long rectangular hall, fronted by a hall of the same width of the house, with windows opening to the street providing a view of the major part of the street. The central hall on the ground floor, has a yard open to the sky “muṟṟam” that gives plenty of light and fresh air and when rains, the water falling within the house to provide an exhilarating cool experience. Following this is another passage leading to the second kattu with rooms and kitchen. At the back is another open yard with a well, providing fresh water and provisions for washing vessels, clothes etc. At the end is a koṭṭkkai used as cow shed and for storing fodder for the cows. All the structures are built of burnt bricks either laid on clay or lime mortar and the wall surface finished with fine lime coat and whitewashed. Timber is used for all super- structures, pillars, roofs etc. and the roof is covered with burnt tiles. The first floor is built of timber rafters over laid with burnt bricks, joined sideways on lime mortar and flooring finished with fine lime. At appropriate places windows are provided in such a way they provide cool air as if provided with air-conditioned rooms. The back yard has a long yard for growing vegetables or flower and fruit-bearing trees and creepers. The back yard is a part of the architecture and is attached to every house. All the houses have one common side wall with no gap or open space between one house and the other. Thus, structurally it is community lay out and one has to live with neighbour as a group. This uniform ground plan with fresh air, light, security, compactness and self-sufficiency in flowers and vegetables was as a result of experienced planning. Such strict rules to maintain a beauty of facades are now the common formula in modern layouts of colonies in advanced countries who impose very strict restrictions on the maintenance of front yard, facades, and interiors and without permission no alteration and this community civic planning was the law two thousand year ago in rural planning in India, observed more in breach than in rational enforcement in modern times. The result of freedom is to break every civic sensibility in the name of modernity by one does not know what? The Layout of Streets This description is a common factor for all the houses, evidently shows that the entire street consisting of over 120 houses forms a single homogeneous architectural lay out, controlled by a strict code of house planning and enforcement. Evidently, such lay outs suggest a Royal foundation, gifted to Brāhmaṇas in ancient times, where some rules are mentioned for provision of stories, tiled roofing, the measurements of length and breadth of built-up house and also its yards. Mahādānas Going beyond the houses, the layout invariably houses a temple in the centre of the street, at one end and this is usually a temple of Viṣṇu. In ancient times many such streets used to be laid out and were named after twelve names of Viṣṇu, like Keśava, Nārāyaṇa, Mādhava, Govinda, Viṣṇu, Madhusūdana, Trivikrama, Vāmana, Śrīdhara, Hṛṣikesa, Padmanābha, and Damodara. Many Cōḻa settlements bear such street names recorded in inscriptions. The streets were named as “cērī” like Keśavac-cērī, Nārāyaṇac-cērī and so on. In some royal colonies, established for the Brāhmaṇas, there were also names of the titles of the kings and queens like Rājarājac-cērī, Rājēndra-chōḻac-cērī, Tribhuvana--mādevic-cērī, and so on. Where there were a number of such streets, a common Sabhā maṇḍapa was built in the centre for transacting all the secular transactions of the village. The centre of the village is called in inscriptions “Brahma-sthāna” the word being employed to show it is only the central point of the village and not in the sense of Brahmā, the creator. Such Brāhmin streets with houses were gifted by the kings when they performed Mahādānas, or specific Bhū-dānas and were generally referred to as Agrahārams, (Agra i.e., front, hāra means street). They were also called as Caturvedi-maṅgalam, Brahmadēyam or simply maṅgalams. Kodunthirappalli Agrahāram This village under discussion is now called Kodunthirappalli. What is the meaning of this word is not known. It consists of a very long street of more than 120 houses and another adjacent street consisting of about 32 houses. It is evident that long street was the original street and the second perhaps built in the second phase. The long street is called Kodunthirappalli and the smaller one called Ādikēśavapuram. At one end of the long street is a temple dedicated to Dharma Śāsta (Aiyappan/Ayyanār), which is a small temple with tiled roofing. The sanctum carries three small pillar like stones planted which are called as Śāsta with Pūrṇa and Puṣkala. There is no sculptural portrayal on the stones. According to local tradition the Śāsta came on a horse at the request of Brāhmaṇa. A remarkable feature about this deity is after 10 am, in the morning the same stone pillar like idol is worshipped as Śrī Rāma, Lakṣmaṇa, and Sīta. It is a strange combination of Śāsta and Śrī Rāma worshipped in the same central images. It is also interesting to note there is a sculpture of Hanuman inside the garbhagraha which receives adoration daily. It is important to note that there is a tradition of reciting the Sundara kāṇḍa of the Rāmāyaṇa daily in the mornings in this village as a form of prayer and many Brāhmaṇas arrange for this recitation through the Village teacher/priest who is a Vedic scholar. The temple also has a modest Balipitha and a dhvaja-sthambha. The streets continue at the back of the temple as well. Ādikēśavapuram The small street adjacent is called as Ādikēśavapuram also has a temple of Viṣṇu called Ādikēśava perumāḷ with his consorts, Śrīdevi and Bhūdevi. This temple is at one end of the street but in its centre. This temple is more vibrant today as it a has a tiled temple complex receiving great worship. The lord is considered the presiding deity of the village. It is in front of this temple the Mahānavami festival is celebrated with a great congregation. The temples both in the long street and the small street are managed by an annually elected assembly of the residential Brāhmaṇas of the village which is called Brahmasvam-sabhā. This Assembly recalls hundreds of Sabhā of Brāhminical Assemblies mentioned as Sabha in Pallava and Cōḻa inscriptions. We may call them the ancient Vedic assemblies that controlled the communal life of the inhabitants in action even to this day.
All inhabitants are Sāmavedins This village is unique in the sense all the inhabitants are followers of one Veda, namely Sāma Veda called the Talavakāra-sāma and are the followers of Jaimnīya Sūtra. They mention that there was another branch of the Sāma veda, the Sahaśra śākha but that śākhā has disappeared. It is remarkable that all the families are Sāma vedins of the Talavakāra school, almost not known in any other place. They belonged to one of the four gotras, Visvāmitra, Vasiṣtha, Bhārgava or Hārita gotras.
Smārtha Vaiṣṇavas The Brāhmins of this village have preserved some traditions that need understanding. They call themselves as Smārtha Brāhmaṇas following the Smṛtis and worship all gods alike. The village Upādhyāya (Vādyār) who is a much-respected Sāmavedins told us that he regularly performs Pañcāyatana-pūjā consisting of Āditya, Ambikā, Viṣṇu, Gaṇanātha (Ganapati) and Maheśvara. He showed me the small Liṅga made of metal he is worshipping daily. He also showed us a Saligrāma (fossilized stone from Nepal) which is worshipped as Narayaṇa. He also told us they observe all the vratas like Sivarātri, Gokulāṣṭhami etc., without distinction. They also adore Śāsta whose temple we have mentioned earlier and celebrate what they call as Śāsta preethi. And yet they call themselves as Vaiṣṇavas that is they give pre-eminence to Viṣṇu in their worship. They wear gopi chandana vertically on their forehead and in a sense, they are connected with the Lord Śriraṅganātha of Śriraṅgam. They consider that their village Viṣṇu is an Amsam of Śriraṅganātha. According to their tradition they migrated to this place from the village Anbil near Śrīraṅgam in the year 1234 CE. They have not been able to tell me how they arrived at this precise date, but some learned men of recent times seem to have assigned this date. We shall see in the sequence about this date as their tradition may have some authenticity. Connected to Śrīraṅgam They also mention that they were originally attached to the Śrīraṅganātha temple as srotriyas meaning they were reciters of Sāmaveda in Śriraṅgam temple. To my specific question whether they are the followers of Śrī Rāmanuja, the Visiṣṭhadvaita exponent, they stoutly denied any connection or adoption of Rāmanuja’s teachings. The date of their migration given by them goes well for I have shown earlier that Rāmānūja darśana has not taken deep root in Śrīraṅgam at that point of time. They are an example of Vaiṣṇava Vedic scholars attached to Śrīraṅgam temple, but not followers of Rāmānuja. Cēra Ravivarman Kulaśekhara The Cēra ruler Ravivarman Kulaśekhara who ruled in the later half 13th century controlled the area around Śrīraṅgam in Tamiḻnāḍu with the assistance of a Pāṇḍya, Sundara Pāṇḍya. Ravivarman was a great devotee of Raṅganātha and made many significant gifts among which one relates to an Agrahāram to 32 vedic Brāhmaṇas who were called Bhaṭṭas, exponents of śāstras. Sundara Pāṇḍya who later became an independent ruler, established another Agrahāram named “Kodaṇḍarāma-caturvedi-maṅgalam” after one of his titles. He settled 208 Brāhmin families of Vedic scholars in Śrīraṅgam to recite Vedas in the Śriraṅganātha temple. Additionally, they had to teach Vedas, expound Śāstras, and purāṇas. From around middle 13th to 14th century, a number of such Agrahārams were established as adjuncts to Śrīraṅganātha temple and all of them were Vedic scholars, who were Vedantins and who had such names as “Brahmacakravarti” and “Veda Vyāsa”. There was a strong school of Vedic and Sanskrit learning around Śriraṅgam and they were all attached to Śriraṅganātha and so were Vaiṣṇava lineage though were themselves Smārta Brāhmaṇas. The inscriptions in the Śriraṅganātha temple show these Brāhmin streets had a temple of Viṣṇu in the centre of them dedicated to Lakṣminārāyaṇa. Śrīraṅgam is in the heart of the Cōḻa Country. Migrated from Anbil in 1234 CE We have seen that the Pālakkāḍu Agrahāram, Kodunthirappalli was colonized according to their tradition around 1234 and the inhabitants came from Anbil village. Anbil is near Śrīraṅgam and so the Vedic Brāhmaṇas migrated to Koduntirappalli from the Śrīraṅgam region. That they have even to this day hold Śrīraṅganāthar as their kuladeivam is known. A Lakṣminārāyaṇa (Ādikesava) temple is located in the centre of the street at Kodunthirappalli has also its parallel in the Kodaṇḍarāma-caturvedi-maṅgalam, near Śrīraṅgam in the 13th century. The same environment is created where the immigrants settled. The Sannidhi street is called as Ādikēśavapuram. It seems to us that the name Kodunthirappalli may itself be a Prākṛtisation of the word Kodaṇḍa-rāma-caturvedi-maṅgalam. One should not forget the Śāstra in the central street of Kodunthiruppalli is worshipped as Śrī Kodaṇḍarāma, a rare combination of one stone idol being worshipped as both Śasta and Kodaṇḍa rāma. I have already shown that the connection between the Cēra and the Śrīraṅgam temple and the Agaram near Śrīraṅgam was established by the Cēra Ravivarman Kulaśekhara. We have also noticed the grāma vinyāsa indicates a royal foundation. It is not unlikely this Pālakkāḍu Agrahara is the Foundation of Ravivarman Kulaśekhara. And the settlement of the Samavedic Brāhmaṇas might have taken place then. What is amazing is that all the over hundred and thirty Vedic Brāhmins belong to Sāmaveda alone, following Talavakāra school and their sutra is only the Jaiminiya sūtra. Nothing but a royal foundation could make such a combination. The tradition maintained by the inhabitants of this village that they came from Cōḻa country, Anbil village, and they are attached to Śrīraṅganātha, and yet they are Vaiṣṇava Smārtha Brāhmaṇass, but not of the Rāmānuja darsana, gain historical credibility.
Mahānavami festival That these Vedic scholars celebrate the Navarātri festival on a grand scale brings great credit to the village. This annual festival turns this village a land of fantasy with a very large number of musicians, over 30 elephants beautifully caparisoned and marching gracefully with colorful umbrellas and festoons infuse a cycle of annual inspiration to the people to take pride in their heritage. The village has also turned into a centre of crafts of Kerala artists camping for three months in a year to make ornaments of elephants. Umbrellas, and cowries for which yaks’ tail is imported from Nepal for manufacture. All the visitors to the festivals provided free food, which is a tradition in Kerala.
An Abode of Vedic and Sanskrit learning However, it being essentially a Vedic village, it has produced outstanding exponents in all fields, like Vedanta, Astronomy, Mathematics, Āyurveda, a Strong base of Sanskrit, music, and dance. One striking feature is that the Vedic scholars were dependant in ancient times for the administration of justice and following the age-old tradition. Many outstanding advocates and lawyers were the products of this village. A village that deserves to be seen studied and preserved as a beautiful heritage village is this Pālakkāḍu Agrahāram. The village is a treasure house of ancient Indian life and wisdom that would show Kerala as the land of Ancient Indian traditions that is unique in the history of the world. I remember with great veneration Pūjya Swāmikaḷ Dayānanda Saraswati who arranged for my visit to this village. He even expressed a desire to visit this village with me. I am also thankful to Śri Kriṣṇan and Mrs. Indu for assisting me in all ways in collecting field data in this fascinating village.
17.3. Tādahaḷḷi near Bangalore: a meeting point of three cultures Tādahaḷḷi is a small village near the Modern Bangalore Airport, hardly about 5 kilometers away. It is surrounded by rocky regions yielding good quality white granite stones that have made it now a region full of granite quarries and stone industries exporting stones to foreign countries. As I went to that village of attractive green trees and vegetation through well laid out roads at places and country roads at other places, I remembered the scenic route from Houston to Austin in USA. With a population of 2500 people inhabiting this village, the history of this village could be traced to over thousand years ago when this region was under the rule of the Cōḻa kings of Tamiḻnāḍu. This ancient settlement is brimming to give you a fascinating cultural fusion of the country in days of yore. The earliest relic found in the village is the temple of seven mother goddesses, known as Saptamātas, now worshipped as Chauḍeśvari consisting of a group of goddesses Brāhmi, Māheśvarī, Kaumāri, Vaiṣṇavi, Vārāhi, Indrāni and Cāmuṇḍa, preceded by Gaṇeśa, all carved on a single stone slab. In addition, there is an image of what the local call Annapūrṇā, and another of Saraswati. According to the local tradition these were consecrated by the Cōḻa Mahārājas of Tamiḻnāḍu. The images are carved out of a course stone and their features are seen feebly but sufficient enough to indicate they do belong to around 10th century, when this region including the modern Bangalore Airport region were under the Cōḻa rule. This need not be a surprise, for the rulers of this region, the Gaṅgas like Prithvipati served also as Commanders under the Cōḻas. The worship of Seven Mothers gained great currency much earlier under the Chālukyas, who claimed that they were protected by the "Mātṛgaṇa" (“Mātṛugaṇa parisevitānām), in their royal charters. It is also known that this Bangalore region was under the Pallavas who crowned the Gaṅga rulers. A group of Saptamātrikas, found at Beguru near Bangaluru, shows Pallava influence in form and expressions of 8th -9th century, which are now on display in the State Museum at Bangaluru. The famous Kolārammā temple dedicated to Saptamātrikas at Kolār near Bangaluru was consecrated by a Commander of the King, Rājēndra Cōḻa is recorded in the temple inscription. Thus, we find the village at Tādahaḷḷi rose to eminence in the 10th century with the temple of Saptamātā temple. A few stones with inscriptions lying in the middle of the village might have thrown more history but the letters on them are worn out.
This temple was a small rectangular structure lying almost half buried which was rebuilt by Śrī S.V. Satyanarayana Ayyer, a resident of this village as a big temple a few years back, when he got a new set of Saptamātās installed in front of the Original Mātās. He built a kitchen and a hall to feed around 500 devotees at a time during the annual festival which came to be organized on a grand scale. Mostly Satyanarayana Ayyer's family and his kith and kin, consisting of about 35 families are livings here, but originally about hundred families of Brāhmins lived but left for Bangalore or other regions gradually. According to the family history, Satyanarayana Ayyer has been living here for several generations and was called a Jodidhār. Jodi was a royal tax collected by Vijayanagar rulers and probably this family served as officials under the Vijayanagara emperors, appointed for collecting the Royal taxes under them. However, his family originally belonged to Viriñchipuram, near Vellore in Tamiḻnāḍu a few centuries ago. Evidently, they were Tamiḻ Brāhmins who migrated here around four hundred years ago.
As is well known, the Brāhmaṇas trace their decendance from one or other Vedic a Ṛṣis some of whom like Bhārgava, Hārita, Kāsyapa, and others are well known lived here. There are many less known gotras of Vedic ṛṣis seen among the present-day inhabitants of Tādahaḷḷi; for example, Ambariṣa, Yavana Asvatreya, Vatsa kumāra Naidruva, Vītahavya, Syavana and Sāveda (probably Jātaveda) are the Vedic ṛṣis whose descendants show how deep rooted the Hindu society has maintained unbroken traditions. The Tamiḻ residents of this place visit once in a year Viriñchipuram, for offerings to their Kuladeivata. I noticed among these family members, one group who are said to be immigrants from Jagannath's Puri in Kaliṅga. They have become one with the Tamiḻ Brāhmins through inter marriages.
Besides these Brāhmins, there are people of other castes among whom one group is called Oḍḍeru, evidently immigrants from Odissa It are also known that Oddas are skilled workers in stone and this area being rocky they have come here several generations earlier and brought with them some Brāhmaṇas for guiding them in their domestic rituals.
It is against this background that one has to see the modern temple of Chauḍeśvari and the form of car of the temple, both of which resemble more Kaliṅga than the South Indian temple in style.
The annual festival called here Jātra of the Saptamātās take place in the month of June for three days. The first day festival is dedicated to lighting the “Māviḷakku dīpam” lamps. The inhabitants carry lamps made of rice flour and other grains in procession. Two giant size lamps each weighing over 45 kilos of paste and carried on head in procession on the heads of two male members, supported by others mark the beginning of the festival. This procession starts from the middle of the village from the Gaṇeśa temple. The women in large numbers carry each one small such lamps and constitute the main body of the procession. This being the temple of the goddesses, women dominate the whole day's proceedings. The second- and third days’ festival see the temple car beautifully decorated with colourful flowers. In ancient times, the car used to be drawn by men, but now they use tractors. A thrilling experience of the village is to see children sit on the temple car while the women and men come along with it as the car wades through the country road from the middle of the village one can see the mingling of Indian Culture even in remote villages.
The original temple of Saptamātās has lost its shape. According to elders of the village that temple was a small rectangular flat roofed structure, made of flat stones and remained virtually half buried. It seemed to have resembled some old Brāhmin houses in the village. The Modern Sociologist generally surmise that Brāhmins were higher caste in hierarchy, they lived in palatial cut stone buildings, but the Brāhmin houses here give a quite opposite picture.
Most of the Brāhmins lived in this village in primitive type of houses built of simple rough cut stone pillars, with crude capitals supporting flat stone slabs. The gap between the pillars, and walls, are filled with mud bricks and covered with lime plaster. Even in these crude walls they seemed to have made some stucco like images. Till about 15 years back they lived in these houses that look like cave-mens’ dwellings. Abandoned, these houses are happy dwellings of snakes and insects now. But it is those who lived in them who built the new Saptamāta temple and a great hall in it for festival. Devotion was superior to them than personal discomfort. They have now moved to new houses adjoining their habitations. Snakes continue to be their comrades in living.
As mentioned earlier some Oddas (Orissans) and Brāhmaṇas from Puri region have migrated here. The newly built Chauḍeśvari temple is neither in South Indian style nor like the one in Puri but lean towards verticality of northern tradition. So, is the temple car. Though it is not a permanent carved wooden structure it is made up of colourful flowers of exquisite beauty. The totality of rural environment gives it enchanting form. Accompanied by the traditional drumming and folk dance it has a charm of its own.
Indian culture is one with enough variations in each region. I am sure that though the lifestyle is gradually changing and the pressure of modernization especially with an International Airport nearby this small village is likely to invite more pilgrims and also men and women in the near future. Endnotes and References 1. Kumbakōṇam inscriptions-Vol I, Ed. Marxia Gandhi, Tamiḻnaḍu State Department of Archaeology, Chennai, 1980. 2. No.1 of 1979, ibid 3. The sellers were the sons of one Gaṅgai-koṇḍa-Aṇukkap-pallavaraiyaṉ. The sellers inherited the land in Kumbakōṇam town from their father who died before that year. They had given earlier a part of the land their father's younger brother who also sold that land to this buyer Vānakōvariayaṉ for the same purpose, namely constituting the Somanatha-maṅgalam. 4. No 2 of 1979. Ibid. As will be seen in the sequence the new colony was laid, and the temple of Somanatha built in the name of the King's guru. Hence the King Kulōttuṅga III himself issues the order. 5. No 4 of 1979. Ibid. The full name of the buyer appears in this record as Vānakōvaraiyar, alias Araiyaṉ Rājarāja dēvaṉ, of Āṟṟūr village in milalai nadu in the territorial division Viruddharaja bhayankara valanadu. This inscription is also a Royal order, the portion recording (Kōnēriṉmai) konadan is damaged. the order was issued to the worshipping priests, the Superintendents of the temple servants, and the Administrative Officers of the Somanatha temple. There existed a flower garden in Kumbakōṇam belonging to the Rājarājeśvara temple of Dārāsuram which is now the subject matter of purchase in this record. It was bought and the temple of Somanātha deva was built. In addition, the front yard, the streets around the temple for the temple servants, a sacred temple tank and a flower garden for the temple of Somanatha were now established. The region where the somanatha temple now stands was originally a flower garden of Dārāsuram temple. The area included more wetlands besides the temple etc. Thus, the temple and its surrounding area were deleted from the revenue register of the Dārāsuram temple, a new register drawn up, the temple and surroundings were exempted from paying taxes and the taxes on the remaining lands were revised. The order was signed by the King's royal secretary confirming that it is a royal order. 6. No 5 refers to sale of land to the temple of Somanatha deva by one Arundavaṉ Mūvēndavelaṉ in the 4th year of Rājarāja III. No 6 refers to a sale of land to the Somanatha deva temple for 25,747 kacus by one Śaṅkara dēvaṉ in the 4th year of Rājarāja III. No 7 relates to sale of a number pf lands in the 6th year of the same king. The record is a long one and mentions a number of temples in the region like Subramaṇya temple. The Viṣṇu temple of Thurvaranga vinnagar, and Kulōttuṅga vinnagar temple. Similarly, a number of irrigation canals are also mentioned like Rājarājaṉ vāykkāl, Cōḻa kula vaykkal, Śaṅkaraṉ vāykkāl etc. The next record relates to the sale of a land to the Somanatha deva temple. and mentions a matha named Rājarājaṉ matham and a pandal. The other record is a continuation of the sale deed mentioned in no 7. 7. Nagaswamy.R., Bengal's contribution to Cōḻa temples, Journal of Bengal art. No 5, published by the ISBA, Dhaka, Bagladesh, under print. 8. Nagaswamy.R., Palaiyāru and Kumbakōṇam, proceedings of the International conference on Kumbakōṇam as a sacred centre, the British Museum, London, under print. 9. Nagaswamy.R., Bengal's contribution to Cōḻa temples, Journal of Bengal art. No 5, published by the ICSBA, Dhaka, Bagladesh, under print. 10. Sarkar.H., the Kampaharēśvara temple at Tribhuvanam, Published by the Tamiḻnāḍu State Dept. of Archaeology, Chennai, 1974, Pp.49-52. 11. Annual Report on Epigraphy, 1908, pp.79-80 12. ARE no 402 of 1925 Also No 274 0f 1978 Published by Tamiḻnaḍu State Dept. of Archaeology, Naṉṉilam Inscriptions Vol 2, Ed by Padmavathi, Chennai, 1980, 13. Nagaswamy.R., Palaiyāru and Kumbakōṇam, proceedings of the International conference on Kumhakonam as a sacred centre, the British Museum, London 14. Nagaswamy.R., Bengal's contribution to Cōḻa temples, Journal of Bengal art. No 5, published by the ISBA, Dhaka, Bagladesh.
