Publishers Note Preface Samadarsanam 1. Introduction — General 2. Saṅgam Age 3. Tolkāppiyam 4. Cilappatikāram and Maṇimekhalai 5. Pūlāṅkuṟuchi 6. Tēvāram 7. Divya Prabhandam 8. Vedas and Vedic Patronage in Tamiḻnāḍu 9. Vedic Colleges 10. Copper Plate Grants 11. Cōḻa Administration 12. Vedic Courts 13. Vedic Laws: Āpastamba Dharma Śāstra 14. Sārīraka Mīmāṁsa of Śaṅkara in Temples 15. Āgamas 16. Aintiṇaikaḷ in Vedas 17. Śivakāmi From Kāraikkāl 18. Vedic Scholars 19. Vedic Cambodia 20. Modern Brāhminical Status Illustrations Bibliography About The Author Home
PUBLISHERS NOTE The first edition of this book authored by our father Dr. Nagaswamy was published by Tamil Arts Academy in the year 2016. Owing to the huge popularity of this book, the second and third editions were published in 2017 and 2018 respectively. We, the members of Tamil Arts Academy, are extremely pleased to publish the fourth edition in the year 2023. We are thankful to many readers who encouraged us to republish this book, particularly our followers on Social Media. We are forever grateful to volunteers who helped us in critically editing the book. Our warm appreciation to V. Gopalan, Bharat, Tulasi Govardhana Rao, Rajendran Ganesan, Jagannath Chellappa, Ragavendar and V.A. Veluswamy for providing photos. The major editions in this version are fixes to grammatical errors and diacritical marks. In addition, we have added relevant references and in-line Tamiḻ, Sanskrit and Grantha verses to enrich the content. Some composite Tamiḻ and Sanskrit words have been hyphenated in English for clarity. We are hoping that the fourth edition will reach a wider audience. Editing • Chapter 3: R.S. Prasanna, o Journalist and Editor / prasanna.ram.swarup@gmail.com • Chapter 6: Sarva Jñatman, Servant of Śiva • Chapters 7 and 13: Jagannath Chellappa • Chapter 8, 9, and 12 - Savita Narayan o Writer and Editor / narayan.savita@gmail.com o Blog and Website: Women in Indian History savitanarayan.blogspot.com o Twitter: @savitanarayan • Chapter 19: Vinay P. Kulkarni o vkulkarni@alchmi.com, @sanskritishaala • All Chapters: Uma Nagaswamy o Researcher and Editor tamilarts.academybooks@gmail.com o website: www.tamilartsacademy.com o Twitter: @unagaswamy Digital Compilation • Epub and PDF formats - Mohan Nagaswamy, Uma Nagaswamy PREFACE
A Yakṣa asked Dharmarājā in Mahābhārata a vital question.
“Oh king! how does one gain Brāhminhood? Is it by birth, behaviour, learning, study of one’s own Veda, or culture?”
Dharmarājā replied “there is no doubt it is attained only by conduct / behaviour and not by any other means. The teachers and pupils and all who merely study the Śāstras are to be regarded as fools. But he alone who possesses conduct, is the man of real knowledge”.
This is considered the most appropriate answer in what is known as “Yakṣa Praśna” in the most brilliant dialogue in the whole of Mahābhārata (Tr. By K. Balasubrahmanya Iyer. Published by Bharatiya Vidyā Bhavan, 1963).
There are elaborate arguments among Advaita exponents who in a singular voice say that nobody can stop any from achieving knowledge (Vidyā). They vehemently argue that the Brahma-sūtra is not to prevent anyone from achieving knowledge and through it obtain liberation. But that it instructs and warns the first three varnas (castes) can achieve liberation only through Veda Vidyā and not through any other knowledge and so must compulsorily study the Vedas. All the later Advaitins invariably cite Ādi Śaṅkarāchārya as the one who categorically declared that anybody with interest and dedication can achieve knowledge and its fruit is emancipation. Śaṅkara has clearly declared Veda-vidyā is different from Ātma-vidyā and said anybody can attain mokṣa through Atma-vidyā. Śaṅkara cites Vidhura from Mahābhārata and Dharmavyādha from Purāṇas, two great men who achieved liberation through general knowledge. Śaṅkara cites Smṛtis and Purāṇas which say that it is the duty of us to tell all people the correct position. Acārya Śaṅkara Bhagavadpādāḷ unequivocally asserted that everyone has capacity and right to knowledge and declared that no one can isolate or deny knowledge and liberation. In this he was the first and foremost social reformer of India who boldly said that one can go beyond the Vedas and achieve liberation in this birth. The door of Advaita is open for all humanity without caste, creed, or nationality. Śaṅkara has boldly said in his “Adhyātma jñāna yoga”, a commentary on Āpasthamba-sūtra as the true reflection of Indian philosophy. There was no room for any sectarian religious approach in his declaration. Śaṅkara’s history has not been properly brought to the people by any historian, most of whom tell fanciful theories about him based on myths and legends and not from his own works. These myths are not history.
All Advaitins after Śaṅkara have quoted him over the centuries and have elaborated on this idea. The authors who cite Śaṅkara are Ānandagiri, Bharati Tīrtha, Vidyāraṇya, and Appayya Dīkṣitar and insist on the inherent right of all to mokṣa. This is the most important bedrock of universal reform of Śaṅkara that had been bequeathed to us.
A study of Brāhminical culture through the centuries will show that the word Brāhmaṇa stood for Vedic Brāhmaṇas also called Smārta Brāhmaṇas who are followers of Smṛtikāras. They were called Antaṇar in Tamiḻ which means those who studied Vedānta. The great Thiruvaḷḷuvar in his Thirukkuraḷ declared that Antaṇar (Vedantins) are those who recognized greatness of every human soul. That is the Dharma of this land. That is reflected in the history of Vedic studies in Tamiḻnāḍu through the last 2000 years and more.
The earliest available literature and inscriptions show that the Tamiḻ society was permeated by the ideals, gods and goddesses as laid in the Vedic tradition. The main ideas of Vedic tradition are based on the four-fold puruṣārthas for man - Dharma, Artha, Kāma and Mokṣa. These are pointedly referred to in the Saṅgam anthology of Puṟanāṉūṟu, especially, the ruling kings striving to attain them. The other important Vedic tradition that was well established was four-fold Varṇa system, like Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya. Vaiśya and Śūdra. In addition, there were other mixed castes, of craftsmen, musicians, forest dwellers and others. Though other mixed castes were outside the general group, they too were followers of Vedic system as illustrated by forest dwellers adoring Durgā. There were also the hill tribes who were votaries of Muruga. Indra, Varuṇa, Cēyoṉ and Māyoṉ are all Vedic Gods. The Cēra, Chōḻa and Pāṇḍya kings performing Vedic sacrifices frequently are proof enough, if required, to the depth to which Vedic ideals were part of earliest strata of Tamiḻ society. In birth and death rites, sacrifices reflect the Vedic tradition. The judicial system, administrative system, poetic conventions, arts, music, dance etc., fully reflect the Vedic traditions. As established in the earliest recorded poems like Puṟanāṉūṟu, there is no evidence to prove isolated independent Tamiḻ culture from the Saṅgam age. Therefore, there is a continuity from that age for the past two thousand years. Tamiḻ developed and grew in strength as a result of this fusion can be seen century after century. That is how every other region of India also developed. The so called Dravidian linguistic theories are not based on chronological analysis of facts available but are only wishful speculations.
In the initial chapters, I have concentrated on the Saṅgam Tamiḻ poems mostly ascribable to the first two centuries of the Current Era, followed by the ancient Tamiḻ grammar. I then focused on the Tamiḻ epics Cilappatikāram and Maṇimēkhalai, where abundant information is available on the Vedic nature of Tamiḻakam. Following this, I have dealt with an important epigraphical discovery at Pūlāṉkuruchi, precisely dated to 270 CE, which gives new information and refers to temples, Brahmadāyam and Brahmadāyakkiḻavars.
In Chapter 6, I have dealt with Tēvāram of Śaivite saints especially Sambandar and Appar. Sambandar was born in a Vedic Brāhmin family, deeply learned in Vedas and Vedāṅgas, and also the 18 Mahāpurāṇas. He had sung more than 4000 hymns on Lord Śiva. He was the greatest Vedic Brāhmin to have enriched particularly music with the result the whole of Vedic lore was available in Tamiḻ. He lived in the first half of 7th century. The greatest of Tamiḻ poets, Sambandar has given a complete picture of Vedic learning and practices in Tamiḻnāḍu. His contemporary was Saint Appar, a Veḷḷāḷar by birth, mastered Vedas and composed over 3000 most beautiful songs in Tamiḻ, furnishing remarkable information on Śaivite practices and at the same time even providing delightful translations for some Vedic and Sanskrit passages. The contributions of the Vaiṣṇava Ālvārs rendering Vedic traditions to Tamiḻ with full integration of the epics Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata, especially Kṛṣṅā sports deserve notice. The Tēvārams and Prabhandams raised the Tamiḻ songs into virtual Vedas, called the Tamiḻ Vedas. From around 600 to 1000, we may call the epoch as Tamiḻ Vedic age. And it is the same age that saw several Vedic colonies and colleges (like Ghatikasthānas and Vidyāstānas) emerging.
Tamiḻnāḍu has fully implemented the Dharma Śāstra doctrines that all public and private transactions must be committed to writings as Lekhya Pramāṇas – Documentary Evidence. Hence, we have thousands and thousands of documentary evidence on the stone walls of the temples that provide us date to trace and document Tamiḻs history with accurate confidence. In every field of their life, we have relied on documented history of the Vedic tradition. These include but not limited to the fields of administration, education, settlements, judicial process, and law. The role of Vedic laws and the contribution of Vedic Brāhmaṇas and their migration patterns, the incoming of people from different regions, far and near, their ancestors and social cohesions are dealt within the closing chapters. These are reflected in their settlements, generally called Agrahāram, many of which still exist as single or cluster of streets, houses and their religious institutions, temples, sacred tanks etc., a standing witness to their contribution going back a few centuries. Lives of people go beyond eating and sleeping, but extended in aspects of music, dance, philosophical aspirations, and their part in the totality of all other people. These settlements stand as monumental witness to know the Archaeology of the living people. The distortions are purportedly advanced by a handful of few who used and misused their proximity to rulers and money power to project fictitious theories as history and grab further powers. A systematic study of all other groups that played crucial role in the society should be undertaken and collated for a proper Picture.
The Chōḻa administration was organized meticulously and enforced scrupulously. There were dedicated groups of officers looking after the various departments at the royal palaces. One of the most important departments was revenue, collecting taxes to the royal treasury called “Puṟavuvari Tiṇaikkalam”. There were several grades of officers for this purpose, who drafted, verified, and got the draft engraved on copper plates and palm leaf ledgers, called “olai” in Tamiḻ and Patram in Sanskrit. These drafts were verified at different levels for accuracy of data, like measurement, yield, grade of fertility, irrigation, rights and privileges, exemptions, and prohibitions. This list of Officers provide invariably details about the name of Office, his nativity, caste etc., which is interesting for examining and calculating the proportional representation of castes in royal service. For example, more than 70% of the Officers of this department were Veḷḷāḷar (Śūdra) from the cultivators’ family, and who were conferred the high-ranking title of Mūvēndavēlārs. They obviously belonged to the upper caste Veḷḷāḷar. A small percentage of about 15% belonged to the chieftains’ family who had the titles suited to their chiefdom like Ayoddhirājaṉ Bāṇādhirājaṉ, Chedirājaṉ, Gaṅgadhiyarāiyaṉ, Kāliṅgarāyaṉ, Magadarājaṉ, Pallavarāiyaṉ, Pāṇḍyādhirājaṉ, and so on. They were regional chiefs whose ancestry is indicated by their titles. The total percentage of Brāhmaṇas in such service was less than 15% who were conferred the titles Brahmādhirāyaṉ. The Brāhmins had served along with Mūvēndavēlārs with no special privilege, on the basis of caste system. It is important to highlight that no special privilege is seen based on caste in the copper plates of the Chōḻa emperors, like Rājarāja, Rājēndra and others. But a statistical analysis does show the Chōḻa depended mainly on cultivators with the titles Mūvēndavēlārs for their inland protection and rule. The projection of some modern historians that Brāhmaṇas suppressed all other castes is a myth and is not free from prejudices. I have dealt with Vedic settlements, Vedic colleges, Vedic administration, Vedic courts, and Vedic laws. I have also mentioned migrations of Vedic scholars and their contribution to Tamiḻ literature.
I have shown in one chapter that Śaṅkara’s commentary on Brahma-sūtra was regularly expounded in a Chōḻa temple and its relevance to temple iconography. This is the earliest epigraphical reference to Śaṅkara. The connection with temple culture shows the meaning of Bhikṣātaṇā form, and its relation to Dakṣiṇāmūrthi and Naṭarāja forms and their role in mediaeval Chōḻa temples. The establishment of many Vedic colleges and the subjects taught under the Chōḻas are important studies.
The great Tamiḻ Savant, Dr.U.V. Swaminatha Ayyar, in addition to being the greatest of Tamiḻ literary luminary, was a great classical musician, having learnt music from his father and the famous poet Gopālakṛṣna Bhārati. His love of music was so great that he prepare a list of musicians, either his contemporaries or a few years earlier to him and this gives a good picture of Brāhmins contributions to classical music, particularly in the 19th and early 20th century. Clearly, the list was not exhaustive but enough to give an insight. There are about 400 musicians about whom Dr. Ayyar has noted down in his list. It is interesting to note some of the most famous poet composers Subrahmaṇya Bhārati, Gopālakṛṣna Bhārati, Tyāgayyar, (whom he mentions as Brahma Śrī Tyāgayyar) Aruṇachala Kavirāyar, Girirājakavi, Vīrabhadra-ayyā, Kavi Kuñjaram Ayyar and others, are present in Dr. Ayyar’s list. He has included all musicians he knew irrespective of their caste or creed. A statistical analysis of the 400 entries shows more than 250 of the musicians were Vedantic Brāhmaṇas also called Smārtas. They are mentioned by UVS Ayyar as Aiyyars, Bhāgavatas, Śāstris, and by other names. The Aiyyars are the Smārta Brāhmaṇas who were Vedic scholars. In fact, in one entry Swaminatha Ayyar mentions this musician has mastered Vedas up to the end of Gaṇas (gaṇantam adhyāyanam). The Bhāgavatas are also Smārta Brāhmaṇas, who have studied the Vedas but specialized in singing and dancing especially the Kṛṣṇa-līla of Bhāgavatam and Rāmāyaṇam. They also contributed to the art of Bhajans. The Śāstris are also Smārtas, of the Vedic learning but seems to be immigrants from Telugu speaking region. There were others with the name Aṇṇa, for instance, Gōpaṇṇa who were Kannada Smārta Brāhmaṇas, who migrated from Mysore and Bangalore during the 18th to 19th century, amounting to almost 300 musicians and made the Tamiḻ country reverberate with classical music. It is interesting to note that the present classical music of Tamiḻnāḍu is based on one Vēṅkaṭamakhin’s musical Caturdaṇdi-prakāsika, who was from Karnataka and so the genre of music is called Carnatic music. It is also pertinent at this juncture to draw attention to the music and dance treatise of Sāraṅgadēva who hailed from western India; both these works are in Sanskrit. The contribution of Vedic Smārta Brāhmaṇas, in the field of music and dance of Tamiḻnāḍu is enormous.
The whole of 20th century saw the embodiment of the totality of 2000 years of wisdom, manifesting as the Kāñchī Mahāswāmigaḷ Śrī Śaṅkarāchārya Śrī Chandraśekharendra Saraswati, whom the entire Indian Nation adored as the embodiment of Divinity. With his simplicity and supreme knowledge, he shone as the Bacon light of all. He was born in the famous family of Gōvinda Dīkṣita, the brilliant Vedic scholar administrator, who hailed from Karnataka, and guided the destiny of Tamiḻnaḍu as the Chief Minister of Three Nāyak kings of Tañjāvūr in the 16th and first half of 17th cent. A genius, and a disciplinarian, he trained Śrī Vijaya Raghunātha Nāyak as the most outstanding ruler among Tañjāvūr Nayaks. Gōvinda Dīkṣita was a great musicologist. He trained his son Vēṅkaṭamakhin as a great musician whose treatise is the guiding work of all classical singers of the south to this day. From this time, there was a good number of Kannada Vedic singers and scholars migrating to Tamiḻnāḍu. Kāñchī Mahāswāmigaḷ composed a musical song on Universal brotherhood, sung by the greatest of Tamiḻ Musicians, Bharatratna M.S. Subbhalakshmi in the United Nations. On many occasions , I had the privilege of sitting under his feet and exclusively listening to his expositions on Indian religion and philosophy.
Another great personality I must mention is Pūjya Śri Dayānanda Saraswati Swāmigaḷ who was the greatest exponent of Indian Philosophy of Advaita and who established Arṣavidya centres in 52 countries around the world. He was an unparalleled scholar and master teacher who taught me many nuances of Indian Philosophy and who made me a faculty of Arṣavidya Gurukulam. I bow down to these greatest Advaita ascetics to whom I dedicate this work.
I am blessed and encouraged by Pūjya Śrī Jayēndra Sarasvati Swāmigaḷ, the head of Kāmakoti Śri Pīṭha and Pūjya Bālapperiyavāḷ, the junior Śrī Śaṅkarācarya Swāmigaḷ, of Kāñchī in this field of research, to whom I pay my respectful praṇāms.
My son Mohan Nagaswamy, who resides in Miami, USA, greatly helped me in collecting enormous amount of data from both Tamiḻ and Sanskrit sources and formatting the collection into a user-friendly layout. Particularly, he worked on the original Upaniṣadic passages and Śaṅkarā's Sanskrit commentary and Sir S. Radhakrishnan 's translations and studies and in the process has developed his own comparative compilation of concepts of Ancient Indians on “Samadarsanam” as the basis of our thoughts. I am proud of his assistance and help and am reproducing a part of his compilation on “Samadarsanam” in this work, in the hope a complete compilation by him would appear as a volume. My daughter Dr. N. Kala has been of great help in setting right computer problems as they occurred and there were many. I thank these children for their affectionate works.
I am also thankful to Sri S. Gurumurthy, Rotarian of Coimbatore for accompanying me to many Agrahārams in Pālakkāḍu region and also himself visited at my request many Agrahāram in Thirunelveli districts and providing me with a good collection of illustrations.
I am also thankful to Sri Sundar Bharadvaj, Āditya Shelters, Chennai for his kind help in all aspects of this venture and encouragement through all means. I owe a great deal to Śri Bharadwaj and Śrī Gurumurthy for all their help. Śrī Murali has helped me in typing some sections of the text and I thank him for his patient help. I also thank Dr. Siniruddhadas, former professor of Sanskrit, Madras University and his wife for their valuable suggestions. Śrī. V. Ravi of Jai Ganesh Printers who has been helping me with printing my research works for the past 25 years has kindly come forward to get this book neatly printed. I am thankful to him for his kindness. I hope this book will stimulate further studies in this fascinating field.
Samadarśanam
sarva-bhūtastham ātmānaṁ sarva-bhūtāni cā'tmani . ikṣate yoga-yuktātmā sarvatra sama-darśanaḥ .. S.Radhakrishna:- He whose self is harmonized by yoga seek the Self abiding in all beings and all beings in the Self; everywhere he sees the same.
Svāmi Chinmayānanda:- .....[Gitā 6.29] In this stanza the author of the Geeta says, in unequivocal terms, that the perfect man of Self-knowledge or God-realisation is not merely one who has realised his own divinity but is also one who has equally understood and has come to live in an intimate knowledge and experience of the divinity inherent in all creatures without any distinction whatsoever. The Awareness in us is the Awareness everywhere in all names and forms and this Divine Awareness is the very essence in the entire world of perceptions and experience. To contact the Infinite in us is to contact the Eternal everywhere.
S.Radhakrishna:- By seeing the self in all beings and all beings in the self one goes to Brahman, not by any other cause. Note:- The first foot of Gītā and Kaivalya are identical. vyāsa uvāca: vāsanād vāsudevasya vāsitaṁ bhuvana trayam . sarva bhūta nivāso'si vāsudeva namo'stu te.
The great Tamiḻ Poet Bhārati in his beautiful song says the Supreme is in the wings of crow and also in the green of leaves of all trees which is a great rendering of the lines from Śrī Rudram vṛkṣebhyo harikeśebhyaḥ paśūnāṁ pataye namo namaḥ in Tamiḻ.
காக்கை சிறகினிலே நந்தலாலா - நின்றன் கரிய நிறம் தோன்றுதையே நந்தலாலா பார்க்கும் மரங்களெல்லாம் நந்தலாலா – நின்றன் பச்சை நிறம் தோன்றுதையே நந்தலாலா —பாரதி samaṁ sarveṣu bhūteṣu tiṣṭhantaṁ parameśvaram vinaśyatsv avinaśyantaṁ yaḥ paśyati sa paśyati — bg.13.27 S.Radhakrishnan :- He who sees the Supreme Lord abiding equally all beings, never perishing when they perish, he, verily, sees. He who sees the Universal Spirit in all things, sees and becomes himself universal.
samaṁ paśyan hi sarvatra samavasthitam īśvaram na hinasty ātmanā 'tmānṁ tato yāti parāṁ gatim — bg.13.28 S.Radhakrishnan :- For, as he sees the Lord present, equally everywhere, he does not injure his true Self by the self and then he attains to the supreme goal. Śrī Kṛṣṇa's Ultimate Teachings [Śrīmad Bhāgavatam 11.29] Śrī Kṛṣṇa's teachings on Ātma Vidyā to his minister Śrī Uddhava is referred to as Uddhava Gītā. Uddhava Gītā is part of Śrīmad Bhāgavatam Canto 11. Following are the final words of Śrī Kṛṣṇa echoing Ātma Vidyā and Unity of Universe. Which is the very essence of Śrī Rudram, Viṣṇu-sahasranāmam and other Vedic and Vedantic Scriptures. visṛjya smayamānān svān dṛśaṁ vrīḍāṁ ca daihikīm . praṇamed daṇḍa-vad bhūmāv ā-śva-cāṇḍāla-go-kharam yāvat sarveṣu bhūteṣu mad-bhāvo nopajāyate . tāvad evam upāsīta vāṅ-manaḥ-kāya-vṛttibhiḥ yo rudro agnau yo apsu ya oṣadhīṣu yo rudro viśvā bhuvanā''viveśa tasmai rudrāya namo astu. [kauṇḍinya gotrodbhasvena, āpasthambīyena, yajur sākhādhyāyī, Śrī Narasiṁha Subrahmanya Lakṣmi dampatyoḥ prapautrena, Śrī Rāmachandra sāstri Alamelu dampathyoḥ pautrena, Śrī Nāgaswamy iti loka vikhyāta apara nāmadeyasya Pañcanadīśvara Śarma Pārvati dampathyoḥ dvitīya putrena, Kāñchī Mahāswamī kaṭākṣa kripālabda jīvopāya samprāpta Śrīmad Mohan Nāgaswamīti loka ākhyātena Narasiṁhasarmēti apara sarma nāmadeyena Śrīmatī Gīteti saubhāgya priya bhāryālamkrita grahē Pañcanadīśvara aparanāmadeya sahita Viṣṇu iti priya tanayena sahāvāsam kurvatā maiyāmi nagare vāstavyena esvhā Saṁskṛta mālā rachitā sarveṣām jñāna phala prāptyarthā vijayate. —— blessings by Śrī. R. Nagaswamy] www.samadarshan.com
INTRODUCTION - GENERAL
This is essentially a book based on extensive research on four fields, namely, literature, inscriptions, monuments, and philosophy that ran through the extreme southern part of India, arranged chronologically. The lifestyle of the people focuses on factual data with the goal of correcting distorted history. 1.1. Vedic Life
From the very beginning of historical times, Tamiḻnāḍu was the land of Vedic traditions in every field of life. The Vedic concepts, gods, customs, and manners governed the Tamiḻ life be it the kings, merchants, cultivators, Brāhmins, hunters, hill tribes, fishermen, chiefs, soldiers, cowherds, artists, musicians, and dancers. The people of Tamiḻnāḍu followed the Vedic ideology, worshipped Vedic gods, and propitiated their ancestors as seen abundantly in the data available. They followed the Vedic rites in their marriage customs and rites. Even if they followed a non-Vedic religion as seen in the marriage of Kaṇṇaki, the central character of the Tamiḻ epic Cilappatikāram (her father was leaning toward Ājīvaka religion). In naming the child, in their education, in married life and in death rites they followed Vedic codes. In organization of the state, the administration, the judiciary, and the religious life, it was the Vedic system that guided them as in the case of village assemblies like Sabhā, Nagara, Nallūr, etc. They established Vedic colleges, teaching Vedic texts, the six aṅgas, the Dharma Śāstras, Tarka, Kāvya, the Rāmāyaṇa, the Mahābhārata, and other regional texts. In addition, they had the two great epics translated into classical Tamiḻ. In the field of music and dance, including the “paṇ” system of music, they followed the northern convention. They produced a masterly Nāṭaka kāvya, the Cilappatikāram based on Bharata's Nāṭya Śāstra. In the earliest grammatical works like Tolkāppaiyam, the classifications and rules were adopted from the Vedic Prātiśākhyas, and Pāṇini's grammar, as conclusively proved by P.S. Subrahmaṇya Śastri. They had a vibrant democratic system of election to Village assemblies. They no doubt, kept the astronomical science within the reach of rural people. When they spoke of Brāhmaṇas, they always meant the Vedic Brāhmaṇas.
The Tamiḻ kings invited several thousand Vedic Brāhmaṇas and gave them house, sites, and land for living. Several thousand Brāhmaṇas were brought from neighbouring regions, by the kings as honoured guests. In inviting Brāhmaṇas the kings laid out four basic criteria: • They should have studied Vedas and Dharma Śāstras • should be poor men • should have big families to support and • Honest righteous men - suddha, śīla, sadācāra. By inviting them, the kings had the following purpose. First, gift to such men brought spiritual merit to the King, his family, his ancestors and to the people of his kingdom. Second, they were primarily expected to maintain judicial availability at the rural level and help in administering legal discipline. Their honesty and righteousness will inspire all to rise to their level.
